Wednesday, 31 May 2023

Postcolonial Theorists - Dr Manisha Patil

 Postcolonial Theorists

Theorist/Author Books Critical Terms Explanation

Edward Said Orientalism (1978) Orientalism Said argued that the West had dominated the East for more than 2,000 years, since the composition of The Persians by Aeschylus. Europe had dominated Asia politically so completely for so long that even the most outwardly objective Western texts on the East were permeated with a bias that even most Western scholars could not recognize. His contention was not only that the West has conquered the East politically but also that Western scholars have appropriated the exploration and interpretation of the Orient’s languages, history and culture for themselves. They have written Asia’s past and constructed its modern identities from a perspective that takes Europe as the norm, from which the “exotic”, “inscrutable” Orient deviates.

Said concludes that Western writings about the Orient depict it as an irrational, weak, feminised “Other”, contrasted with the rational, strong, masculine West, a contrast he suggests derives from the need to create “difference” between West and East that can be attributed to immutable “essences” in the Oriental make-up.

Frantz Fanon Black Skin, 

White Masks (1967) Internalization 

of colonization

by the 

colonized Colonization permeates the psyche of the colonized black man to such an extent that he develops not only an inferiority complex but also the desire to be the white colonizer. Fanon says, “For the black man, there is only one destiny and it is white.” For Fanon, being colonized by a language had larger implications for one’s political consciousness: “To speak...means above all to assume a culture, to support the weight of a civilization” (17-18). Speaking French means that one accepts, or is coerced into accepting, the collective consciousness of the French. French or rather whole European collective consciousness has unredeemable racist structure. In Europe, the black man is the symbol of evil, torturer, Satan, shadow, dirt (physical as well as moral dirtiness), sin, concretely or symbolically the bad side of character. The myth of bad nigger is central to white man’s conceptualization of self. The feeling of inferiority of the colonized is the correlative to the European’s feeling of superiority. So when a black man learns a European language, he is subjected to its inherent racism and is thereby colonized. To overcome this inferior status, he attempts to win the love of a white woman: ‘Out of the blackest part of my soul, across the zebra striping of my mind surges this desire to be suddenly white. I wish to be acknowledged not as black but as white. Now…who but a white woman can do this for me? By loving me, she proves that I am worthy of white love. I am loved like a white man. I am white man. Her love takes me onto the noble road that leads to total realization… I marry white culture, white beauty, white whiteness. When my restless hands caress those white breasts, they grasp white civilization and dignity and make them mine.’ Fanon ends the book on a note of appeal: “I have one right alone: that of demanding human behavior from the other…I, the man of color want only this: that the tool never possesses the man. That the enslavement of man by man cease forever…superiority? Inferiority? Why not the quite simple attempt to touch the other, to feel the other, to explain the other to myself?”

Frantz Fanon The Wretched of 

the Earth (1986) Role of class, race, national culture and violence in the struggle for national liberation As a psychiatrist, Fanon explored the psychological effect of colonization on the psyche of a nation as well as its broader implications for building a movement for decolonization.

Fanon goes into great detail explaining that revolutionary groups should look to the lumpenproletariat for the force needed to expel colonists. The lumpenproletariat in traditional Marxist theories are considered the lowest, most degraded stratum of the proletariat, especially criminals, vagrants, and the unemployed, who lacked class consciousness. Fanon uses the term to refer to those inhabitants of colonized countries who are not involved in industrial production, particularly peasants living outside the cities. He argues that only this group, unlike the industrial proletariat, has sufficient independence from the colonists to successfully make a revolution against them. The book also constitutes a warning to the oppressed of the dangers they face in the whirlwind of decolonization and the transition to a neo-colonialist/globalized world.

Aimé Césaire Negritude The literature of Negritude includes the writings of black intellectuals who affirm black personality and redefine the collective experience of blacks. A preoccupation with the black experience and a passionate praise of the black race, provides a common base for the imaginative expression in association with romantic myth of Africa. The external factor defining the black man in modern society is colonialism and the domination by the white man, with all the moral and psychological implications. Negritude rehabilitates Africa and all blacks from European ideology that holds the blacks to be inherently inferior to the whites so as to rationalize Western imperialism. 

Octave Mannoni Prospero and 

Caliban: The 

Psychology of 

Colonization Psychology of the colonizer and the colonized Mannoni states, “Not all people can be colonized; only those who experience this need [for dependency]…Whenever Europeans have founded colonies of the type we are considering, it can be safely said that their coming was unconsciously expected – even desired – by the future subject people. Everywhere there existed legends foretelling the arrival of strangers from the sea, bearing wondrous gifts with them.” So according to him, the white male colonizer acts in obedience to an authority complex while the colonized black man obeys a dependency complex. Both are satisfied. The book was later criticized by writers such as Frantz Fanon. 

Albert Memmi The Colonizer and 

the Colonized (1957); Decolonization and 

the Decolonized (2006)

Interdependent relationship of the colonizer and the colonized Memmi suggests that in the wake of global decolonization, the suffering of former colonies cannot be attributed to the former colonizers, but to the corrupt leaders and governments that control these states. 

Homi K. Bhabha Nation and Narration (1990) Nation as a product of narration Bhabha challenges the tendency to treat post-colonial countries as a homogeneous block. This leads, he argues, to the assumption that there is and was a shared identity amongst ex-colonial states. Bhabha argues that all senses of nationhood are narrativized. In his this book, Bhabha primarily critiques the attempts of nationalist discourse to produce the idea of nation as a complete self-sufficient entity, as “a continuous narrative of national progress, the narcissism of self-generation, the primeval present of the valk “(Bhabha:1) and instead draws our attention to the “recesses of the national culture from which alternative constituencies of peoples and oppositional analytic capacities may emerge – youth, the everyday, nostalgia, new ‘ethnicities’, new social movements, ‘the politics of difference’.” (Bhabha:3) Against the totalizing tendencies of nationalism, Bhabha asserts the locality of culture. He says, “The ‘locality’ of national culture is neither unified nor unitary in relation to itself, nor it must be seen simply as ‘other’ in relation to what is outside or beyond it. The boundary is Janus faced and the problem of outside / inside must always itself be a process of hybridity…. [which turns] boundaries and limits into the in-between spaces through which the meanings of cultural and political authority are negotiated…..The ‘other’ is never outsides or beyond us; it emerges forcefully, within cultural discourse when we think we speak most intimately and indigenously ‘between ourselves’” (Bhabha: 4)

Homi K. Bhabha The Location of 

Culture (1994)












Hybridity






Theory of third space Bhabha advocates a fundamental realignment of the methodology of cultural analysis in the West away from metaphysics and toward the “performative” and “enunciatory present” [(1994) The Location of Culture p.178] Such a shift, he claims, provides a basis for the West to maintain less violent relationships with other cultures. In Bhabha’s view, the source of the Western compulsion to colonize is due in large part to traditional Western representations of foreign cultures.

Bhabha’s argument attacks the Western production and implementation of certain binary oppositions. The oppositions targeted by Bhabha include center/margin, civilized/savage, First/ Third worlds, West/East, North/South, capital/labour and enlightened/ignorant. Bhabha proceeds by destabilizing the binaries insofar as the first term of the binary is allowed to unthinkingly dominate the second.

Once the binaries are destabilized, Bhabha argues that cultures can be understood to interact, transgress, and transform each other in a much more complex manner than the traditional binary oppositions can allow. According to Bhabha, hybridity and “linguistic multivocality” have the potential to intervene and dislocate the process of colonization through the reinterpretation of political discourse.

Bhabha’s key argument is that colonial hybridity, as a cultural form, produced ambivalence in the colonial masters and as such altered the authority of power. Bhabha’s arguments have become key in the discussion of hybridity. While he originally developed his thesis with respect to narratives of cultural imperialism, his work also develops the concept with respect to the cultural politics of migrancy in the contemporary metropolis. This critique of cultural imperialist hybridity meant that the rhetoric of hybridity became more concerned with challenging essentialism and has been applied to sociological theories of identity, multiculturalism, and racism.

Bhabha states that the ‘act of interpretation is never simply an act of communication between the ‘I’ and the ‘You’ of the statement. The production of meaning is negotiated through a third space which represents both langue and the parole.’ It is the intervention of this third space which ‘challenges our sense of the identity of culture as a homogenizing unifying force authenticated by an originary past and kept alive in the national tradition of the people.’ It is that third space that answers the ‘meanings and symbols of culture have no primordial unity or fixity’; that even the same signs can be appropriated, translated, rehistorisized and read a new. By exploring this third space a new revolutionary change can be brought about. This theory of third space proposes that culture is constantly negotiated. Because it is a site for contest of meanings, there is possibility of resistance. If the culture can be imposed, it can be deposed as well.

Benedict Anderson Imagined Communities (1983) Nation as “an imagined political community [that is] imagined as both inherently limited and sovereign” An imagined community is different from an actual community because it is not (and cannot be) based on quotidian face-to-face interaction between its members. Instead, members hold in their minds a mental image of their affinity. For example the nationhood you feel with other members of your nation when your “imagined community” participates in a larger event such as the Olympics. As Anderson puts it, a nation “is imagined because the members of even the smallest nation will never know most of their fellow-members, meet them, or even hear of them, yet in the minds of each lives the image of their communion”. [Imagined Communities. p. 6-7] Members of the community probably will never know one another face to face, however can have similar interests or are both just a part of the same nation. The media also create imagined communities, through targeting a mass audience or generalizing and addressing citizens as the public.

Anderson argues that the main causes of nationalism and the creation of an imagined community are the reduction of privileged access to particular script languages (e.g. Latin), the movement to abolish the ideas of divine rule and monarchy, as well as the emergence of the printing press under a system of capitalism (or, as Anderson calls it, ‘print-capitalism’).

Ashis Nandy The Intimate Enemy: 

Loss and Recovery of 

Self Under Colonialism (1983) Psychological problems posed at a personal level by colonialism, for both colonizer and colonized Nandy argues that the understanding of self is intertwined with those of race, class, and religion under colonialism, and that the Gandhian movement can be understood in part as an attempt to transcend a strong tendency of educated Indians to articulate political striving for independence in European terms. Through his prolific writing and other activities supported by his belief in non-violence, Professor Nandy has offered penetrating analysis from different angles of a wide range of problems such as political disputes and racial conflicts, and has made suggestions about how human beings can exist together, and together globally, irrespective of national boundaries.

Partha Chatterjee The Nation and Its Fragments: Colonial 

and Postcolonial 

Histories (1993) Chatterjee asks why nation states in the third world, which became independent with such high ideals, have been unable to realize their promises of emancipation and freedom to their citizens. Part of the problem, Chatterjee argues, is that while we see the nationalism as being the complete opposite of colonialism, it in fact absorbs much of the value system of colonialism, and acts to benefit middle class elite. He needs us to think through history very carefully and very responsibly. Doing this means that we can neither take Western political science theories and apply them in a ‘modular’ fashion to postcolonial nation-states such as Singapore nor sloppily claim that ‘Asian’ social and political orders are different from ‘Western’ ones without any evidence. Above all, we need to remember that the attitudes we take for granted about civil society, about community, market, and state, are themselves the products of history. 

Chatterjee highlights the fact that as a modern regime of power, late colonialism could not appeal – except as a very last resort – to brute force or to ideas of sovereignty. Rather, it attempted to justify itself by attaching itself to Enlightenment ideals. Thus, colonialism was often presented by colonialists as a kind of tutelage, in which colonized peoples would eventually be brought up to the level of Europe. Many colonial officials in fact saw themselves as missionaries, bringing light to the darkest corners of the earth, taking on ‘the White Man’s burden’ of educating and enlightening colonized peoples so that they could begin, very slowly, to climb up the ladder of progress which the colonizers have already climbed. Colonialism thus works as governmentality, attempting through institutions such as schools, asylums, and churches to encourage colonized peoples to move gradually towards ‘self-improvement’. This is also a pragmatic strategy, in that relatively few colonizers (and crucially for colonizing governments, little money) are needed to run a colony.

Colonialism, for Chatterjee, is fundamentally flawed not just because it is a cruel and unjust system but because it is inherently contradictory. As a modern regime of power it claims to incite colonial subjects to self-improvement and development, so that they become more rational and leave ‘primitive superstition’ behind. However, the whole basis of colonialism is based on an irrational racist distinction between colonizer and colonized, between ruler and ruled which he calls ‘the rule of colonial difference’.

As some members of the colonized community become educated and ‘improved’ in the colonizer’s eyes, they threaten the very foundations of colonialism. If colonialism as governmentality works, these people should become as ‘rational’ and as ‘modern’ as Europeans, deserving equality with the colonizers. However, granting them such a status would threaten the very foundations of colonialism itself, the rule of colonial difference. Colonialism thus despises the very products it has created, people of mixed cultural heritage who form the middle-class elites of colonized communities. Colonial rulers are much happier with ‘traditional’ or ‘primitive’ colonized populations because they do not challenge the inherent contradictions of colonialism. The longer colonialism exists, however, the greater the number of middle-class people of mixed cultural heritage who call into question the rule of colonial difference. 

The colonial middle classes are often educated by the colonial power and as a result they adopt an Enlightenment world view, the ‘bourgeois-rationalist conception of knowledge’ (Nationalist Thought 11) of the colonizer whereby human race universally progresses from superstition and ignorance to reason and knowledge. Yet they face a problem: How can they become modern, but modern in a different way from the colonizer? How can one progress, but not become ‘Westernized’? To solve this dilemma, they make a fundamental distinction between West and Self, and see the West as possessing cultural attributes (largely material) which need to be appropriated, while maintaining the superior spiritual qualities of the indigenous culture. The colonizer’s culture is seen as ‘decadent’ while the culture of the colonized is seen as morally superior. This leads to the rise of anti-colonial nationalism, which attempts to invent nationhood and a ‘“modern” national culture’ which is not Western, excluding the colonial state from the heart of national culture (The Nation and Its Fragments 6). Nationalists are unwilling for the colonial state to reform ‘“traditional” society’ (9). Rather, they assert that ‘only the nation itself could have the right to intervene in such an essential aspect of its cultural identity’ (9). 

This distinction between West and Self is mapped onto another division, that between public and private, the world and the home. The public sphere becomes the area of modernity, a material world. The spiritual, private sphere of the home becomes the area of tradition, where indigenous culture may be preserved in an uncontaminated way. (What is presented as tradition here is often a middle-class, cleaned up version of community practices which is quite remote from the life world of the majority of colonized peoples.) It becomes the first and foremost duty of women (and women alone) to maintain this cultural essence, and thus bear the primary burden of not being Westernized. Women can be educated, and indeed should be so, but they must also be respectable: they thus differentiate themselves from uneducated (an unrefined) previous generations, but also from Western women who move freely in the material world (127).

Thus anti-colonial nationalism shares a thematic with colonialism, even when the problematic is exactly opposite. Nationalism accepts the notions of progress towards reason and modernity propounded by colonialism. Freed from the rule of colonial difference, however, nationalism can bring modernity to the citizens of the new nation in a way that colonialism never could. Colonialism presents itself as governmentality, but deeply, at the last resort, it must resort to force, to sovereignty, a pre-modern form of power. In its lack of representativeness, colonialism can never realize the project of modernity; nationalism can. The middle-classes in the emergence of nationalism take it upon themselves to educate the masses and lead them: “[The member of the colonial elite] had grown used to referring to himself, like the educated European, as a member of ‘the middle class.’ Not only was he in the middle in terms of income, but he also assumed, in the sphere of social authority, the role of the mediator. On the one hand, he was claiming that those who had wealth and property were unfit to wield the power they had traditionally enjoyed. On the other hand, he was taking upon himself the responsibility of speaking on behalf of those who were poor and oppressed. To be in the middle now meant to oppose the rulers and lead the subjects.” (The Nation and Its Fragments 92)

The middle classes achieve hegemony in the private sphere, producing a sense of what it means to be ‘Indian’, or ‘Jamaican’, or ‘Nigerian’ to which all future citizens assent. During the colonial period, the middle classes may initially participate in civil society institutions of the colonial public sphere. Later, however, they will carve out an autonomous space outside of the colonial public sphere. After independence, hegemonic control is expressed largely through the institutions of political society, in an expanded state which now acts in the nation’s interests.

Anti-colonial nationalism achieves what Chatterjee terms a passive revolution. The middle-classes take over the apparatus of the colonial state, but no fundamental political revolution occurs. Much of the space which was occupied by civil society institutions in the colonial era comes to be occupied by institutions of political society with a close affiliation with the state. As a result, subaltern classes still remain oppressed even after independence.

Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak Can the Subaltern 

Speak? (1988) Subaltern



























Strategic essentialism This essay perhaps best demonstrates Spivak’s concern for the processes whereby postcolonial studies ironically reinscribe, co-opt, and rehearse neo-colonial imperatives of political domination, economic exploitation, and cultural erasure. In other words, is the post-colonial critic unknowingly complicit in the task of imperialism? Is “post-colonialism” a specifically first-world, male, privileged, academic, institutionalized discourse that classifies and surveys the East in the same measure as the actual modes of colonial dominance it seeks to dismantle? According to Spivak, postcolonial studies must encourage that ‘postcolonial intellectuals learn that their privilege is their loss’ (Ashcroft. et al 28). In Can the Subaltern Speak?, Spivak encourages but also criticizes the efforts of the subaltern studies group, a project led by Ranajit Guha that has reappropriated Gramsci’s term ‘subaltern’ (the economically dispossesed) in order to locate and re-establish a ‘voice’ or collective locus of agency in postcolonial India. Although Spivak acknowledges the ‘epistemic violence’ done upon Indian subalterns, she suggests that any attempt from the outside to ameliorate their condition by granting them collective speech invariably will encounter the following problems: 1) a logocentric assumption of cultural solidarity among a heterogeneous people, and 2) a dependence upon western intellectuals to ‘speak for’ the subaltern condition rather than allowing them to speak for themselves. As Spivak argues, by speaking out and reclaiming a collective cultural identity, subalterns will in fact re-inscribe their subordinate position in society. The academic assumption of a subaltern collectivity becomes akin to an ethnocentric extension of Western logos – a totalizing, essentialist ‘mythology’ as Derrida might describe it – that doesn’t account for the heterogeneity of the colonized body politic.

By reserving the crisis of subjectivity to Europeans and the authenticity of experience to ‘subalterns,’ poststructuralists end up recapitulating a number of problems: (1) Foreclosing culture and theory for the oppressed who “only” have recourse to concrete experience, which gets valorized as “untouchably” authentic (double-meaning intentional) (2) Giving up on even attempting to understand/speak to the experience of “others” since it is their own and unknowable (3) Creating and relying on a ‘native informer’ class. 

Spivak herself is (arguably) from the ‘native informant’ class (though born shortly before independence) and deals with issues of translation in her work (critiquing translatability of Western ideas of subjectivity). Since she has invited us to consider how position influences politics/theory, how does her position influence her work? 

Spivak says the Subaltern can’t speak because by having a single “voice” you are being essentialist, reductionist, bipolar (“master and slave dialectic”) and not looking at class. (This is a continuation of the dialogue of the Indian Subaltern Studies Project of the 1980’s.) 

Spivak coined the term ‘strategic essentialism’, which refers to a sort of temporary solidarity for the purpose of social action. For example, the attitude that women’s groups have many different agendas makes it difficult for feminists to work for common causes. ‘Strategic essentialism’ is about the need to accept temporarily an ‘essentialist’ position in order to be able to act.

Anne McClintock Imperial Leather In Imperial Leather, Anne McClintock argues that to understand colonialism and postcolonialism, one must first recognize that ‘race, gender and class are not distinct realms of experience, existing in splendid isolation from each other; nor can they be simply yoked together retrospectively like armatures of Lego. Rather, they come into existence in and through relation to each other – if in contradictory and conflictual ways.’ She further explains that imperialism ‘is not something that happened elsewhere – a disagreeable fact of history external to Western identity. Rather, imperialism and the invention of race were fundamental aspects of Western, industrial modernity. The invention of race in the urban metropoles...became central not only to the self-definition of the middle class but also to the policing of the “dangerous classes”: the working class, the Irish, Jews, prostitutes, feminists, gays and lesbians, criminals, the militant crowd and so on. At the same time, the cult of domesticity was not simply a trivial and fleeting irrelevance, belonging properly in the private, “natural” realm of the family. Rather, I argue that the cult of domesticity was a crucial, if concealed, dimension of male as well as female identities – shifting and unstable as these were.’5

Anne McClintock forcefully argues that a large part of colonial expressions of distaste for African treatment of women and consequent reformist zeal arose in the fact that women’s work effectively removed African men from the control of colonial power, ideology, and economic pressures:

Missionaries and colonists voiced their repugnance for polygyny in moral tones, placing it firmly within the discourse of racial degeneration. The practice of polygyny was seen to mark African men, as Haggard had marked King Twala, as wallowing in the depths of sexual abandon: the “African sin.” Yet colonial documents readily reveal that the assault on polygyny was an assault on African habits of labor that withheld from the resentful farmers the work of black men and women. The excess labor that a black man controlled through his wives was seen as a direct and deadly threat to the profits of the settlers. As Governor Pine complained: “How can an Englishman with one pair of hands compete with a native with five to twenty slave wives?...” 

The fundamental unit of Zulu society was the homestead (urmuzi, imizi), in which a single male (umnumanzana) held authority over his wife or wives, their children, livestock, gardens and grazing lands. Each homestead was more or less independent, with women growing food on land held in trust for the chief of the clan. Each wife worked her own fields, living with her children in a separate house that took its name from her. A strict gendered division of labor prevailed, as women did most of the agricultural and domestic work hoeing, planting, gathering and tending the crops, building and tending the houses, making implements and clothes, taking care of the daily cooking and the houses, as well as the bearing and raising of the children.6 

She also identifies European discourse about Africa as a part of larger discourse of European Porno-tropics. The European porno-tropics had a long tradition. As early as the second century A.D., Ptolemy wrote confidently of Africa that “the constellation of Scorpion, which pertains to the pudenda, dominates that continent.” Leo Africanus agreed that there was “no nation under heaven more prone to venerie” than “the Negros.” Francis Bacon’s Hermit was visited by the Spirit of Fornication, who turned out to be a “little foule, ugly Aethiope.” John Ogilby, adapting the writings of Olfert Dapper, rather more tactfully informed his readers that west Africans were distinguished by “large propagators,” while the planter Edward Long saw Africa as “the parent of everything that is monstrous in nature.” By the nineteenth century, popular lore had firmly established Africa as the quintessential zone of sexual aberration and anomaly – “the very picture,” as W. D. Jordan put it, “of perverse negation.” The Universal History was citing a well-established and august tradition when it declared Africans to be “proud, lazy, treacherous, thievish, hot and addicted to all kinds of lusts.” It was as impossible, it insisted, “to be an African and not lascivious, as it is to be born in Africa and not be an African.”7 


Chandra Talpade Mohanty Under Western Eyes: Feminist Scholarship 

and Colonial Discourses (1986) Third World woman In this essay, Mohanty articulates a critique of the political project of Western feminism in its discursive construction of the category of the “Third World woman” as a hegemonic entity. Mohanty states that Western feminisms have tended to gloss over the differences between Southern women, but that the experience of oppression is incredibly diverse, and contingent on geography, history, and culture. 

Robert J C Young White Mythologies: 

Writing History 

and the West (1990) In this book, Young argued that Marxist philosophies of history had claimed to be world histories but had really only ever been histories of the West, seen from a Eurocentric--even if anti-capitalist--perspective.

Robert J C Young Colonial Desire (1995) Hybridity In this book, Young examined the history of the concept of hybridity, showing its genealogy through nineteenth-century racial theory and twentieth-century linguistics, prior to its transformation into an innovative cultural-political concept by postcolonial theorists in the 1990s.

Robert J C Young Postcolonialism: An Historical Introduction (2001) It offers the first comprehensive account of the history and theoretical production of all the major anti-colonial movements of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries around the globe and traces their relation to the development of postcolonial theory. Stressing the significance of the work of the Third International, as well as Mao Zedong’s reorientation of the landless peasant as the revolutionary subject, Young points to the importance of the Havana Tricontinental of 1966 as the first independent coming together of the three continents of the South – Africa, Asia and Latin America – in political solidarity, and argues that this was the moment in which what is now called ‘postcolonial theory’ was first formally constituted as a specific knowledge-base of non-Western political and cultural production.

Robert J C Young Postcolonialism: A Very Short Introduction 

(2003) Young links this genealogy of postcolonialism to the contemporary activism of the New Social Movements in non-Western countries. This last book, intended as an introduction to postcolonialism for the general reader, is written in a highly accessible style and unorthodox format, mixing history with fiction, cultural analysis with moments of poetic intensity that stage and evoke postcolonial experience rather than merely describe it. Instead of approaching postcolonialism through its often abstract and esoteric theories, the book works entirely out of particular examples.

 

Dr Manisha Patil 

Tuesday, 30 May 2023

Postcolonialism - Dr Manisha Patil

 Postcolonialism

The term ‘postcolonialism’ can be written in two ways: with and without hyphen. With hyphen (post-colonialism) it indicates the temporal marker: something which happened after colonization. Without hyphen (postcolonialism) it stands for the oppositional attitude to the colonization. In that sense postcolonialism starts not after but with the onset of colonization itself and continues till colonization and its effects are operative, long after the actual political subjugation is over. Generally anti-colonial struggle in the colonies concentrates too much on the political front at the expense of socio-psychological aspects of the colonization. It is assumed that once the political sovereignty is achieved, all the adverse effects of colonization would vanish like waving a magic band. The need to break away from the painful past and make a new beginning is so urgent that it is accompanied with equally strong ‘will-to-forget’ the memories of colonial subordination and will to disown the burden of past. However, historically speaking political liberation is not the cut-off point in the continuous flow of time. The post-independence amnesia cannot completely wipe out the residual traces of subordination. The ‘celebrated moment of arrival – charged with the rhetoric of independence and the creative euphoria of self-invention’ is accompanied with the ‘anxieties and fears of failure which attend the need to satisfy the historical burden of expectation.’ Thus, in reality, this historical amnesia ‘is informed by a mistaken belief in the immateriality and dispensability of the past. In Lyotard’s judgment, ‘this rupture is in fact a way of forgetting or repressing the past that is to say, repeating it and not surpassing it.’ (Lyotard 1992, p 90)’3 

Like colonization even decolonization is a lengthy process consisting of both political activism and intellectual resistance. The first step towards decolonization is obviously developing an ideological resistance to colonization. It is not enough to experience the oppression, it is necessary to theorize it – to identify its source (subjugation of native people through brute force and then its rationalization), effects (degradation of the colonized people’s self, creation of trauma and inferiority complex in their mind, falsification of their history and calcification of their culture) and ways of resistance (rejection or appropriation). Then comes the actual political resistance which is marked by mass struggle both violent and non-violent. The acquisition of political sovereignty may seem to be the end of this process, but in reality, it is the beginning of a more complex process known as decolonizing the mind. It involves overcoming the historical amnesia mentioned earlier, and repossessing one’s self, history and culture. The last but the most difficult stage involves remapping the society, culture and the psychological territory.

To truly overcome colonialism, it is necessary to re/member colonial past. The colonial discourse creates a ‘Manichean allegory’ (Abdul Jan Mohammad’s term) or binary opposition between the colonizer and the colonized. The colonizer as ‘self’, is depicted as the epitome of all noble qualities and the colonized as the ‘other’ is depicted as filthy, brute savage. The colonizer is defined as good, the colonized as bad; the colonizer as intelligent, the colonized as dumb; the colonizer as civilized, the colonized as barbaric; the colonizer as rich, the colonized as poor. In short, the colonized does not have any other autonomous status apart from the distorted mirror image of the colonizer. This ‘Manichean allegory’ has great persuasive power as the colonized in need of positive self-image, takes up the position of colonizer and disowns his/her own colonized self. Known as ‘double consciousness’, this self-division turns a colonized into his/her own enemy. If s/he rejects everything associated with the colonizer, s/he may be trapped into the self-created marginalization. On the other hand, if s/he whole heartedly internalizes the values of colonizer, s/he becomes inauthentic; mere shadow of the colonizer. In either case, the colonized is the loser. The solution to this deadlock is subversion – to subvert the context in which the colonizer defines value and to appropriate those values to serve one’s own purpose rather than the colonizer’s. For example, in Shakespeare’s The Tempest, colonizer Prospero teaches the native Caliban his language so that he can command his slave to perform his chores. However, Caliban claims, “You taught me language; and my profit on’t is, I know how to curse. The red plague rid you for learning me your language!” [Act 1, Scene2] It is necessary for the colonized not to be seduced by the colonial discourse which valorizes colonizer’s values and calls upon the colonized to embrace them as a means of their upliftment. George Lamming says, “The colonizing agent may begin with suggestions for improvement, and improvement is always welcome, for it’s another word for change, with a promise of change for the batter as you see better. It may start as a suggestion. Then the suggestion fails and the colonized are alive with complaint. But the colonizing agent has already chosen the future of this enterprise, the end of which is to get colonized securely into his power. This power will be used toward an end that may have nothing to do with the landscape where they both experience this encounter.”4 When the colonized looks back upon the colonial past, s/he encounters two discourses: ‘the seductive narrative of power and alongside that the counter-narrative of the colonized – politely but firmly declining the come-on of colonialism. It is important to remember both – to remember in other words, that postcoloniality derives its genealogy from both narratives.’5 It is not enough to oppose the colonizer’s domination, it is extremely important to regain ‘creative autonomy’ from the colonizer. Focusing on the future and striving for the creativity rather than authenticity (in other words hybridity) can show the path towards liberty and prosperity.

The Postcolonial theorist have explored these issues of colonization and decolonization from various angles – starting with their meanings, assumptions, critical methods till its limitations. In essence, they have exposed to both the colonizer and ex-colonized the falsity or validity of their assumptions. The pioneers of Post-colonialism like Edward Said, Franz Fanon, Homi Bhabha among others, have concerned themselves with the social and cultural effect of colonization. They have regarded the way in which the West paved its passage to the orient and the rest of the world as based on unconfounded truths. They have asserted in their discourses that no culture is better or worse than other culture and consequently they have nullified the logic of the colonialists. In their readings of colonial and post-colonial literature and other forms of art, post-colonial critics have relied heavily on other available literary theories. They have manipulated Marxism, new historicism, Psychoanalysis, and deconstruction to serve their purposes. Now one by one we will go through their views and ideas. 

Dr Manisha Patil 

रात सोती है और मैं जागता हूं

 














रात सोती है और मैं जागता हूं

कितने अजीब शौख पालता हूं।


बस इश्क की लाज के खातिर 

तुम्हारे झूठ को सच मानता हूं।


कह दूंगा तो शर्मिंदा होगे तुम 

मैं इसलिए ही बात टालता हूं।


तुमसे हाँथ मिलाया हूं लेकिन

तुम्हारे हर फरेब को जानता हूं।


तुम्हें कहने की जरूरत नहीं है 

मैं इश्क वाला रंग पहचानता हूं।



Dr Manish Kumar Mishra

Assistant professor

Department of Hindi

K.M.Agrawal College

Kalyan west

Maharashtra 

Monday, 29 May 2023

The Effect of Colonialism - Dr Manisha Patil

 The Effect of Colonialism

Colonization has wide ranging effects in all the spheres of life – physical, economic, social, psychological and cultural. There is no denying the fact that oppression is a basic ingredient of colonialism. Colonization is for the benefit of the colonizer. So, on the colonizer it has positive effect while on the colonized it has negative impact. Possibility of physical movement means mobility and liberation to the colonizer while the same means displacement for the colonizer. Colonization boosts the economy of the imperial center by providing raw material at cheap rate and ensuring captive markets for the final products. In contrast it destroys the economy of the colonized land by denying it the fair trade and competition. Economic prosperity brings about social stability in the mother country while forced displacement, indentured labor and finally slavery destructs the very fabric of family and community in the colony. Moreover, it creates acute trauma and inferiority complex in the colonized which becomes trans-generational. Ultimately, cultural hegemony of the colonizer suppresses the local cultures.

The initial submission of the natives may be forced or mutual. But after some period through their experience and exposure to wider political climate and world ideologies they realize that the settlers are mere parasites sucking off the blood and labor of the natives without awarding them their dues. The natives realize that their hopes and aspirations would always remain subdued under the foreign rule. As a result, the natives resort to violent struggle to shake the colonizer off his shoulder; and eventually they do it.

There are so many views on the effects of colonialism. These views depend on the political and ideological position of those who disseminate them. Some claim that in spite of the ugly face of colonialism, it did a lot of good to the colonized. It brought to the colonized a new vision of life, mainly western and advanced. It fostered a strong sense of national unity. It brought industrialization and modern economy to the colonies; and above all it advanced cultural life where it occurred. Implicit in these claims is the colonizers’ high moral grounds mentioned above. On the other hand, there is the view that colonialism is pure oppression, immoral, evil, and nothing more than a form of a Neo-slavery. As a result, no possible good can come out of such evil, and it should be combated with sheer force. This radical view not only denies any positive effect of colonialism, but also incriminates those so-called apologists for colonialism.

Some of the results and effects of colonialism can be put in the following terms:

• The total or partial erosion of the colonized culture

• The mediation of the identity and subjectivity of the colonized

• The total rejection by some elements among the colonized of everything western as a form of reaction and protest against the colonizer.

• The categorization of the world into ranks, such as first world, second world, the West and the rest with all the subsequent stereotyping and prototyping that follows.

• The emergence of different forms of fundamentalism that aim at purifying their local cultures from the residues of the colonial past

• The emergence of bourgeoisie classes in the colonies, modeling themselves after their masters, who endeavor to maintain their status quo by getting closer to Western culture

• The emergence of societies with a lot of contradictions and split loyalties.

Dr Manisha Patil 

Sunday, 28 May 2023

Toni Morrison- Dr Manisha Patil

 Toni Morrison is the first African American woman writer to win Nobel Prize for Literature in 1993. In her work Morrison demonstrates an ‘oppositional attitude’ to the hegemony of White America and asserts the identity of Black women as historical subject. She explores the experience and roles of black women in a racist and male dominated society. At the same time, she also documents the nuances of unique and complex cultural inheritance of African-Americans.

The basic premise of the present research is an attempt to identify basic issues of postcolonial theory which are reflected in the vivid experiences of Morrison’s characters such as hegemony, displacement, stereotyping, resistance, subversion and hybridity. The study tries to look into these issues that enable Toni Morrison to explore the problems pertaining to Blacks in America from various angles of class, gender and race. 

I am very much grateful to all the critics on whose works I am heavily dependent not just for the insight in the subject matter but also for inspiration.

I express my heart felt gratitude to my guide Dr. Rambhau M. Badode, Professor and Head of Department of English, University of Mumbai for his valuable advice and critique of my writing.

I am thankful to all other members of Department of English, University of Mumbai for all their aid.

I am also indebted to all the staff members of Jawaharlal Nehru Library, Kalina Campus, University of Mumbai and Central Library, American Conciliate, Mumbai for their prompt and smiling assistance while locating and referring books, magazines and articles. They have taken extra effort to provide me with right material. Without them I would not have been able to complete my work.

I am greatly obliged to my mother for all her caring, support, guidance and inspiration throughout my life. She has played a very big role in motivating me for this research.

Last but not the least I wish to express gratitude to Toni Morrison herself for providing insight in the nature of oppression, human suffering and resistance to it and thereby making millions of people more humane and benevolent towards their fellow human beings irrespective of class, race and sex.

Dr. Manisha D. Patil




Saturday, 27 May 2023

तुम्हारी स्मृतियों से

 तुम्हारी स्मृतियों से  । 


यह जो 

मेरी मनोभूमि है

लबालब भरी हुई

तुम्हारी स्मृतियों से

यहां

रुपहली बर्फ़ पर

प्रतिध्वनियां

उन लालसाओं को 

विस्तार देती हैं 

जो की अधूरी रहीं ।


ये रोपती हैं

जीवन राग के साथ

गुमसुम सी यादें

लांघते हुए

उस समय को

कि जिसकी प्रांजल हँसी

समाई हुई है

मेरे अंदर 

बहुत गहरे में कहीं पर ।


इस घनघोर एकांत में

उजाड़ मौसमों के बीच

बहुत कुछ 

ओझल हो गया

तो बहुत कुछ गर्क।


विस्मृतियों के

ध्वंस का गुबार

इन स्याह रातों में

रोशनदान से

अब भी 

झांकते हैं मुझे 

और मैं

ऐसी दुश्वारियों के बीच

डूबा रहता हूं

अपना ही निषेध करते हुए

उन बातों में

जो तुम कह चुकी हो ।


मैं

शिलाओं सा जड़

नहीं होना चाहता इसलिए

लगा रहता हूं

हंसने की

जद्दोजहद में भी

लेकिन मेरा चेहरा

गोया कोई

ना पढ़ी जा सकनेवाली 

किसी इबारत की तरह

बिलकुल नहीं है ।


ऐसे में

सोचता हूं कि

विपदाओं की इस बारिश में 

पीड़ाओं के बीच

कोई पुल बनाऊं

ताकि 

साझा कर सकूं

पीड़ाओं से भरी चुप्पियां ।


इन चुप्पियों में

कठिन पर कई

जरूरी प्रश्न हैं

जिनका

अभिलेखों में

संरक्षित होना ज़रूरी है

वैसे भी

प्रेम में लोच

बहुत ज़रूरी है।


फिर इसी बहाने

तुम याद आती रहोगी

पूरे वेग से

और

एक उपाय 

शेष भी रह जायेगा 

अन्यथा 

ख़ुद को खोते हुए

मैं

तुम्हें भी खो दूंगा ।


जबकि मैं

तुम्हें खोना नहीं चाहता

फिर यह बात

तुम तो जानती ही हो 

इसलिए

तुम रहो 

मेरे होने तक

फिर भले ही जुदा हो जाना 

हमेशा की तरह

पर

हमेशा के लिए नहीं ।



डॉ मनीष कुमार मिश्रा

सहायक प्राध्यापक

हिन्दी विभाग

के एम अग्रवाल महाविद्यालय

कल्याण पश्चिम

महाराष्ट्र

Reference Books for Sanskrit Drama - Dr Swati Joshi Gujarat

 

Reference Books for Sanskrit Drama

Dr Swati Joshi

Gujarat 


01. Masson, J. Avimaraka.  Motilal Banarsidas; Delhi: 1970

02. Woolner, A.C and Sarup Lakshman. Thirteen Plays of Bhasa. Motilal Banarsidas and Sons; Delhi: 1985 vol. II 

03. Cowell,E.B. Tr The Harsacharita of Bana.  Motilal Banarsidas; Delhi: 1993

04. Haksar A.N.D. (tr.)  The Shattered Thigh And Other Plays. Penguin Group; India: 1993

05. Sharma, Sudarshan Kumar. Ed.Tr. Karnabharam and Madhyama Vyayoga of Mahakavi Bhasa.Parimal Publication; Delhi: 2005

Secondary Sources:

1. Aggarwal, Hansraj. A Short History of Sanskrit Literature. Munshi Ram Manohar Lal Publishers; Delhi: 1963

2. Altekar, Anant Sadashiv. The Position of Women in Hindu Civilization: From Prehistoric Times to Present Day. Motilal Banarsidas; Delhi: 1959

3. Arun, Rajendra. Dasharath: Man of Words. Ocean Books Pvt. Ltd; New Delhi: 2003

4. Aurobindo, Sri. The Secret of the Veda. Sri Aurobindo Ashram Press; India: 1956 

5. Bader, Clarisse. Women in Ancient India: Moral and Literary Studies. Taylor and Francis Routledge Publication; New York: 2002

6. Badlani, Hiro. G. Hinduism: Path of the Ancient Wisdom. iUniverse; Bloomington:2008 

7. Barker, Chris. Cultural Studies: Theory and Practice. Sage Publication Ltd; California: 2003 

8. Baumer, Rachel Van.M. & James R. Brandon. (ed.) Sanskrit Drama in Performance. Motilal Banrasidas Publishers Pvt. Ltd.; Delhi: 1993

9. Beissinger, Margaret, Jane Tylus and Susannee Wofford. (ed.) Epic Tradition in the Contemporary World: The Poetics of community. University of California press; London: 1999

10. Bhattacharji, Sukumari. The Indian Theogony. Cambrige University Press; London: 1970 

11. Blundell, Sue. Women in Ancient Greece. Harvard University Press; Cambridge, Massachusetts: 1995

12. Brisson, Luc. Plato- The Myth Maker. (tr.)(ed.) Naddaf Gerard. University of Chicago Press; Chicage: 2000

13. Brodbeck, Simon and Brian Black. (ed) Gender and Narrative in the Mahabharat. Routledge; London: 2007

14. Buitenen, J.A.B Van. (tr.) (ed.) Mahabharata: The Book of the Beginning. The University of Chicago Press; Chicago:1983 

15. Callahan, Kathy L. In the image of God and the Shadow of Demon: A Metaphysical Study of Good and Evil. Trafford Publishing; Canada: 2004

16. Campbell, Joseph. The Hero with a Thousand Faces. New World Library; California: 2008 

17. Campbell, Joseph. The Mythic Image. Princeton University Press; U.S.A:1974

18. Chaitnya, Krishna. A New History of Sanskrit Literature. Manohar Book Service; New Delhi: 1977

19. Chatterjee, Margaret. (ed.) Contemporary Indian Philosophy. Motilala Banarsidas Publishers Pvt. Ltd.; Delhi: 1998

20. Coupe, Laurence and Kenneth Burke. Myth: An Introduction. Routledge; New York: 2005

21. Das, Bhagvan. The Science of Social Organization or The Laws of Manu in the Light of Atma- Vidya. (vol.II ed.II) The Theosophical Publishing House; India: 1935

22. Das, Bhagvan. The Science of Social Organization or The Laws of Manu in the Light of Atma- Vidya. (vol. III Ed.II) Ananda Publishing House; Banaras India: 1948

23. Das, Gurucharan. The Difficulty of Being Good: On the Subtle Art of Dharma. Oxford  University Press; New York: 2009 

24. De,Susheel Kumar. History of Sanskrit Poetics. Orient Book Centre; Delhi: 2006

25. Dhand, Arti. Woman as Fire, Woman as Sage: Sexual Ideology in the Mahabharata. State University of New York Press; Albany; 2008

26. Doniger, Wendy. (ed.) Purana Perennis: Reciprocity and Transformation in Hindu and Jaina Texts. State University of New York Press; Albany: 1993

27. Doniger, Wendy. On Hinduism. Oxford University Place; New York: 2014

28. Doniger, Wendy. Splitting the differences: Gender and Myth in Ancient Greece and India. The University of Chicago press; Chicago and London: 1999

29. Doniger, Wendy. The Hindus: An Alternative History. Oxford University Press; New York: 2009 

30. Doty, William. G. Myth: A Handbook. Greenwood Press; Westport: 2004

31. Dowden, Ken. The Uses of Greek Mythology. Taylor and Francis: 2005

32. Doyle, Christopher. C. The Mahabharata Secret. Om Books International; India: 2013

33. Dutt Ramesh C. The Ramayana and The Mahabharata .Everyman’s library; New York: 1972

34. Dutta, Nath Manmatha. The Dharma Shastra or The Hindu Law Code. Essylium Press, Vol II; Kolkata: N.D

35. Edmunds, Lowell. (ed.) Approaches to Greek Myth. The Johns Hopkins University Press; London: 1990

36. Egenes, Linda and Kumuda Reddy.  The Ramayana –A New Retelling of Valmiki’s Ancient Epic complete and comprehensive. Tarcher Perigee; New York: 2016 

37. Ego, Psychology and the study of Mythology. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Associations; 1961

38. Eldredge, John. Epic: The Story God is Telling. Thomas Nelson; California: 2004 

39. Feller, Danielle. The Sanskrit Epics’ Representation of Vedic Myths. Motilal Banarsidas Publishers. Pvt. Ltd; Delhi: 2004

40. Fowler, Jeaneane. D. Hinduism: Belief and Practices. Sussex Academic Press; Great Britain: 1997

41. Gadd, Maxine. Myth. Taylor and Francis; N.P: 2006 

42. Ghoshal, S.N. The Inception of the Sanskrit Drama. Calcutta Book House; Calcutta: 1977 

43. Gonda, Jan. Ancient Indian Kinship from the Religious point of view. Leiden; Brill: 1969

44. Gopalkrishnan, Sudha. Kuttiyattam: The Heritage theatre of India. Niyogi Books; New Delhi: 2011

45. Green, David & Lattimer, Richmond. The complete Greek Tragedies. (vol. IV) University of Chicago Press; Chicago: 1959

46. Guerber H.A. The Book of the Epic- The world’s great Epics told in story. Biblo and Tannen; New York: 1966

47. Haksar A.N.D. (tr.) The Shattered Thigh And Other Plays. Penguin Group; India: 1993

48. Heller, Sophia. The Absence of Myth. State University of New York Press; Albany: 2006

49. Hill, Peter. Fate, Predestination and Human action in the Mahabharata. Munshiram Manoharlal; Delhi: 2001

50. Hiltebeitel, Alf. The Cult of Draupadi: Mythologies from Gingee to Kuruksetra. Motilal Banarsidas Publishers Private Limited; Delhi: 1991

51. Hiltelbeitel, Alf. Mahabharata- A Reader’s Guide to the Education of the Dharma King. The University of Chicago Press; London: 2001 

52. Horney, Karen. Neurosis and Human Growth: The Struggle towards Self- Realization. Routledge; New York: 1951

53. Horney, Karen. Self Analysis. Routledge; New York: 2002

54. Horney, Karen. The Neurotic Striving of Our Time. Routledge; New York: 1999

55. Hutchison, Elizabeth.D. Dimensions of Human Behaviour: Person and Environment. Sage Publications; London: 2003

56. Innes, Paul. Epic. Routledge ; London and New York: 2013

57. Insight Study of Suryaputra- The most virtuous but tragic warrior from the Mahabharata: A study on Interpersonal Relationship. International Journal of English Language, Literature and Translation Studies (IJELR) M.Selvalakshmi Vol.4 Issue 1.2017 (Jan-Mar) 

58. International Library of Psychology.  Studies in Analytical Psychology. Routledge; London: 2001

59. Iyer Ramachandra,T.K. A Short History of Sanskrit Literature. R.S. Vadhyar; Kalpathi Palghat:  1977 

60. Jacobsen, A.Knut. (ed.) Handbook of Contemporary India. Routledge ; London and New York: 2016

61. Jain, Simmi. Encyclopedia of India Women through the Ages: Period of freedom struggle. Vol. 3 Kalpaz Publication; Delhi: 2003

62. Jakhotiya, Girish. P. Krishna: The Ultimate Idol. Banyan tree Books. Pvt. Ltd.; New Delhi: 2009

63. Jha, Gauri. Shankar. Current Perspectives in Indian English Literature. Atlantic Publishers and Distributors; New Delhi: 2006

64. Jung .C.G. Psychological Types. Routledge Taylor and Francis Group: London and New York: 1971 

65. Jung, C.G. (tr.) R.P.C Hull. The Archetypes and the collective unconscious. Princeton University Press; New York: 1959

66. Kala, Jayantika. Epic Scenes in Indian Plastic Art. Abhinav Publications; New Delhi: 1988

67. Kane, P.V. History of Sanskrit Poetics. Motilal Banarsidas Publishers; Delhi: 2002 

68. Karve, Irawati. Yuganta- The end of Epoch.Orient Longman Private Limited; India: 1991

69. Katz, Ruth. C. Arjuna in the Mahabharata: Where Krishna is there is Victory. University of South Carolina Press; Columbia: 1989

70. Keith, Arthur Berriedale: A History of Sanskrit Literature. Motilal Banarsidas Publishers; Delhi: 1993 

71. Keith, A.B The Development and History of Sanskrit Literature. Sanjay Prakashan; New Delhi: 2002

72. Keith.A.B. The Religion and Philosophy of the Veda and Upanishad. ( Part-I) Motilal Banarasidas Publishers Private Limited; Delhi: 1998

73. Khan, M.Q. and A.G.Khan. (ed.) Changing Faces of Women in Indian Writing in English. Creative Books; New Delhi:1995

74. Kirk, Geofrey Stephen. Myth: Its meaning and Functions in Ancient and other Cultures. Cambridge University Press; London: 1970

75. Kishwar, Madhu. Off the Beaten Track, Rethinking Gender Justice for Indian Women. Oxford University Press; New Delhi: 1999

76. Knappert, Jan. Indian Mythology: An Encyclopedia of Myth and Legend. Aquarian; London: 1991

77. Kohli, Narendra. Hidimba. Vani Prakashan; New Delhi; 2012

78. Konstan, David and Kurt A. Raaflaub. (ed) Epic and History. A John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Publication; United Kingdom: 2010 

79. Konstan, David. Friendship in the classical world. Cambridge University press; New York: 1997 

80. Krishnamacharior, M. History of Sanskrit Literature. Motilal Banarsidar Publication Prt. Ltd; Delhi: 2004 

81. Krishnaswamy, Shata. Glimpses of Women in India. Ashish Publications; New Delhi: 1983 

82. Kumar, Nand. Indian English Drama: A Study in Myth. Sarup and Sons; New Delhi: 2003

83. Kumar, Sanjay. Manu: The Meaning of Svatantrya and its implications for Women’s Freedom. In The Journal of Religious Studies. Vol 34  P.207 to 223.

84. Kunjuni, Raja. Kuttiyattam - An Introduction. Sangeet Nayak Akademi; New Delhi: 1964

85. Lal, K.Basant. Contemporary Indian Philosophy. Motilal Banarsidas; Delhi: 1995

86. Lal, P. Great Sanskrit Play in New English Trans creations. New Directions Books; New York: 1964

87. Lauden, Bruce. The Iliad Structure, Myth and Meaning. The Johns Hopkins University Press; Baltimore: 2006

88. Leeming, David Adams. The World of Myth: An Anthology. Oxford University Press;  New York: 1990

89. Leeming, David. A. The World of Myth. Oxford University Press; New York: 1990

90. Leslie, Julia. (ed.) Roles and Rituals for Hindu Women. Motilal Banarsidas Publishers Pvt.Ltd.; Delhi:1992

91. Liszka, James Jakob. The Semiotic of Myth: A Critical study of symbol .Indiana University Press; United States: 1989 

92. Lovatt, Helen & Caroline Vout. (ed.) Epic Vision: Visuality in Greek and Latin Epic and its Reception. Cambridge University Press; New York: 2013

93. Lovatt, Helen. The Epic gaze: Vision, Gender and Narratives in Ancient Epic. Cambridge University Press; New York: 2013

94. Macdonell, A.A. Vedic Mythology. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers; Delhi: 2002

95. Mali, Joseph. Mythistory: The Making of a Modern Historiography. The University of Chicago Press; Chicago and London: 2003 

96. Mali, Joseph. The Rehabilitation of Myth: Vico’s New Science. Cambridge University Press. United Kingdom: 1992 

97. Mayo,Robert.  A New System of Mythology. (vol. III) Puiladelphia;  N.P:  1819

98. Mc Grath, Kevin. The Sanskrit Hero Karna in Epic Mahabharata. Brill Leiden; Boston: 2004

99. Mehta, Tarla. Sanskrit Play Production in Ancient India. Motilal Banarsidas Publishers Pvt. Ltd; Delhi: 1995

100. Meletinskii, Eleazar. Moiseevich. The Poetics of Myth. (tr.) Lanoue, Guy and Sadetsky, Alezandre. Routledge; New York: 2000

101. Menon, Ramesh. The Mahabharata- A Modern Rendering (vol.2). iUniverse; New York: 2006

102. Merkur, Dan. Psychoanalytic Approaches to Myth: Freud and the Freudians. Routledge; New York and London; 2005 

103. Miles, Geoffrey. (ed.) Classical Mythology in English Literature: A Critical Anthology. Taylor & and Francis; New York: 2009

104. Miles,Geoffrey. (ed.) Classical Mythology in English Literature: A Critical Anthology. Routledge; London: 1999

105. Miller, Arthur. G.(ed.) The Social Psychology of Good and Evil. The Guilford Press; New York: 2004

106. Motilal, B.K. (ed) Moral Dilemmas in the Mahabharata. Motilal Banarsidas; Delhi: 1989

107. Muller, Max. Essays on Mythology Traditions and customs. (vol.II). Longman Green and Co; London: 1867 

108. Narayan R.K. The Indian Epics Retold The Ramayana, The Mahabharata, Gods, Demons and others. Penguin Books India Pvt. Ltd; New Delhi: 1995

109. Narayan R.K. The Mahabharata.  Penguin Books Pvt. Ltd; U.K: 2001

110. O’Flaherty, Wendy Doniger. Hindu Myths. Penguin Books; New Delhi: 1994

111. O’Flaherty, Wendy. Doniger. The Origin of Evil in Hindu Mythology. University of California Press; London: 1979

112. O’Flaherty, Wendy. Doniger. The Origins of Evil in Hindu Mythology. Motilala Banarsidas; Delhi: 1976

113. O’Flaherty, Wendy. Doniger.(ed.) Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions. University of California Press; London: 1980

114. Ollhoff, Jim. Greek Mythology. ABDO Publishing Company; United State of America: 2011

115. Ollhoff, Jim. The World of Mythology: Indian Mythology. ABDO Publishing Company; United State of America: 2012

116. Paranjpe, C.Anand. Self and Identity in Modern Psychology and Indian thought. Kluwern Academic Publishers; New York: 2000

117. Pattanaik, Devdutt. Indian Mythology: Tales, Symbols and Rituals from the Heart of the Subcontinent. Inner Traditions Rochester; Vermont: 2003

118. Pattanaik, Devdutt. JAYA- An Illustrated Retelling of The Mahabharata. Penguin Books; New Delhi: 2010

119. Patton, Laurie. L & Wendy Doniger (ed.) Myth and Method. University Press of Virginia; Charlottesville and London: 1996

120. Piccardi. L and, W. B. Masse.  Myth and Geology. The Geological society; London: 2007

121. Plato and Tayer Lewis. Plato – Against the Atheists. Harper and Brothers; New York: 1845 

122. Poor S.Sara & Jana K. Schulman (ed) Women and Medieval Epics. Gender, Genre and the limits of Epic Masculinity. Palgrave Macmillan; New York: 2007 

123. Pruthi.R.K. (ed.) The Classical Age. Discovery Publishing House; New Delhi: 2004

124. Puniyani, Ram. (ed.) Religion, Power and Violence, Expression of politics in Contemporary Times. Sage Publications India Pvt. Ltd.; New Delhi: 2005

125. Raglan, Lord. The Hero- A Study in Tradition, Myth and Drama. Dover Publication; New York: 2003 

126. Rajagopalachari, Chakravati.  Mahabharata. Diamond Books Pvt. Ltd; New Delhi: 2005

127. Ramen, Fred. Indian Mythology. The Rosen Publishing Group Inc; New York: 2008

128. Rangacharya, Adya (ed.) (tran.) Natyasastra: English Translation with Critical Notes. IBH Prakashan; Banglore: 1986

129. Rank,Otto. The Myth of Birth of the Hero. A Psychological Interpretation of Mythology. (Tr.) George C. Richter and E. Jamesberman. The Johns Hopkins University Press; London: 2004 

130. Rao, Ramakrishna.K. & Anand. C. Paranjpe. Psychology in the Indian Tradition. Springer; New Delhi: 2016

131. Roy, Kaushik. Hinduism and the Ethics of Warfare in south Asia: From Antiquity to the Present. Cambridge University Press; New York: 2012

132. Russell, Ford. Northrop Frye on Myth. Routldge; London: 2000

133. Sansonese, Negro. Prologue of the Body of Myth: Mythology, Shamanic Trance, and the Sacred Geography of the Body. Inner Tradition International; Vermont USA: 1994 

134. Sastri, Gourinath. A Concise History of classical Sanskrit Literature. Motilal Banarsidass; Delhi: 1960 

135. Schwarts, Susan. L. Rasa: Performing the Divine in India. Columbia University Press; New Delhi: 2004 

136. Scott, Michael. Ancient Worlds: An Epic History of East and West. Hutchinson; London: 2016

137. Segal, Robert.A. Theorizing about Myth. BookCrafters. Inc; USA: 1999

138. Shalom, Naama. Re- ending The Mahabharat: The Rejection of Dhrama in the Sanskrit Epic. State University of New York Press; Albany: 2017

139. Shekar,I. Sanskrit Drama :Its origin and decline. Munsiram Manoharlala Publishers Pvt. Ltd; New Delhi: 1977

140. Singh, Nagendra. Vedic Mythology. A.P.H Publishing Corporation; Delhi: 1997

141. Sinha, Atulkumar & Abhay Kumar Singh (ed.)  Udayana : New Horizons in History, Classic and Inter Cultural Studies. Anamika Publishers & Distributors Pvt.Ltd; New Delhi: 2007  

142. Sinha, Jadunath. Indian Psychology: Emotion and Will. Vol.II Motilal Banarsidass Publication; New Delhi: 1986 

143. Siyuan, Liu.   Handbook of Asian Theatre. Routledge Taylor and Francis Group; London and New York: 2016 

144. Stookey, Lorena. Thematic Guide to World Mythology. Greenwood Press; West Port U.S.A: 2004

145. Strauss, Levi. Myth and Meaning. Routledge Classic; London and New York: 1978

146. Sutton, Nicholas. Religious Doctrines in the Mahabharata. Motilal Banarsidas; Delhi: 2000

147. Tagore, Rabindranath. Karna and Kunti. Collected Poems and Plays. Macmillan; London: 1950

148. Thorner, Alice & Maithreyi Krishnaraj (ed.) Ideals, Images and Real Lives: Women in Literature and History. Orient Longman; New Delhi: 200

149. Turner, Frederick. Epic: Form, Content and History. Transaction Publishers; London: 2012 

150. Tylor, Edward. Primitive Culture: Researches into the Development of Mythology, Philosophy, Religion, Art and Custom. (vol I) Bradbury, Evans and Co. Printers; London: 1871

151. Wheatley, Chloe. Epic, Epitome and the Early Modern Historical Imagination. Ashgate Publishing Company; U.S.A: 2011

152. Wilkins, William. Joseph. Hindu Mythology, Vedic and Puranic.  William Clowes and Sons Limited; London: 1882

153. Wilkinson, Philip & Neil Philip. Mythology. Dorling Kindersley; New York: 2007

154. William, George. M. Handbook of Hindu Mythology. Oxford University Press; New York: 2003

155. William, M. George Handbook of Hindu Mythology. Oxford University Press; New York: 2003

156. Williams, George. M. Handbook of Hindu Mythology. ABC-CLIO. Inc; California: 2003

157. Winternitz, Moriz. History of Indian Literature. Motilal Banarsidass Publication; Delhi: 1963 vol. III 

158. Witzel, Michael. The origin of the worlds’ Mythologoies. Oxford University Press; U.S.A:2012

159. Woods, Julian. F. Destiny and Human initiative in the Mahabharata. State University of New York Press; Albany: 2001

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WEB WORLD

1  www.jatland.wm/home/yugandhara

2  https://books.google.co.in/books? 

3  www.wisdomlib.org/definition/yugandhara

4  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Udayana 

5  http://www.manuscrypts.com/myth/2011/02/16/udayana

6  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svapnavasavadattam

7  http://www.iosrjournals.org

8  https://www.jstor.org

9  http://en.bookfi.net

10  https://muse.jhu.edu

12  https://www.elsevier.com 

13  http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal

14  http://www.tjprc.org/journals

15  http://www.academicjournals.org/journal/IJEL

16  http://www.rjelal.com

17 http://www.questjournals.org

18  http://www.scijournal.org

 19  www.indianscriptures.com

20  www.Yayanika.org

21  www.shodhganfa.inflibit.ac.in

22  www.manuscrypts.com

23  www.languageinindia.com

24  www.quara.com

25 www.ijelr.in

Dr Swati Joshi
Gujarat 

ठुमरी की नामचीन गायिकाएं।

 ठुमरी की नामचीन गायिकाएं। 

1. गौहर जान 

2. जानकी बाई  

3. बेगम हजरत महल

4. बेगम अख्तर

5. रसूलन बाई

6. सिद्धेश्वरी बाई

7. जिद्दन बाई

8. बड़ी कनीज 

9. लाड़ली बाई

10. टॉमी बाई

11. दुलारी बाई

12. मुख्तर बेगम

13. उमराव जान अदा 

14. मलका जान आग्रेवाली

15.राजेश्वरी बाई

16. काशी बाई

17. हुस्ना बाई 

18. विद्याधरी बाई

19. बड़ी मोती बाई 

20. केसर बाई

21. सितारा देवी

22. सृजन बाई

23. जोहरा बाई आगरा वाली

24. सुंदरा बाई

25. मुनिया बाई

26. सरस्वती बाई

27. बैजंती बाई 

28. हीरा बाई 

29. बड़ी मैना बाई

30. सुगना बाई

31. मंगू बाई 

32. जनी बाई मालपेकर

33. नूर बाई 

34. उमा बाई 

35. जीनत बाई 

36. रहिमन बाई 

37. पन्ना बाई 

38. कमल बाई 

39. नन्ही बाई 

40. चंद्रभागा बाई 

41. चित्रा बाई 

42. खुर्शीद बाई

43. चंदा बाई 

44. अमानी जान 

45. सुंदर बाई

46. लतीफन बाई 

47. सरफो बाई

48. संधू बाई

49. धूमन बाई 

50. छुट्टन बाई 

51. मोहम्मद बांदी

52. अल्लाह जिलाई बाई 

53. तन्नो बाई

54. अशगरी बाई 

55. इंदुबाला देवी 

56. गिरजा देवी 

57. मुख्तर बेगम

58. अजीजन बाई 

59. रोशन आरा बेगम बांबेवाली

60. अनवर बाई लखनवी 

61. तमंचा जान आका गुलज़ार बेगम

62. जानकी बाई  मारवाड़न / उदयपुर

Dr Manish Kumar Mishra

Assistant professor

Department of Hindi

K.M.Agrawal College

Kalyan west

Maharashtra 

लड़ते हैं लेकिन भरोसा बना रहता है

 लड़ते हैं लेकिन भरोसा बना रहता है

छट जाता है जो कोहरा घना रहता है।


जिन रास्तों पर - "कार्य प्रगति पर है।"

ऐसे रास्तों पर तो चलना मना रहता है।


कोई साथ हो न हो तुम हौसला रखना 

यूं भाड़ फोड़ने अकेले ही चना रहता है।


जो नींव पड़ जाए फ़िर मकान बनाना

जड़ों के बिना पेड़ कहां तना रहता है।


उन्हें रावणी खानदान कहते हैं गांव में

जिनके बीच रोज़ ही कुछ ठना रहता है।

Dr Manish Kumar Mishra

Kalyan 

मैंने बस उसी यार की सदा मांगी है

 मैंने बस उसी यार की सदा मांगी है 

जिस ने मेरे मरने की दुआ मांगी है।


मैं सच बोलता रहा बड़ी गलती हुई 

अपनी गलती के लिए सज़ा मांगी है।


होली दिवाली और ईद हो साथ साथ

मुल्क के वास्ते ऐसी ही फिज़ा मांगी है।


दंगे फसाद और दहशतगर्दी बहुत हुई

मैंने इनकी इस मुल्क से रजा मांगी है।


राहे इश्क में उम्मीद बड़ी चीज़ होती है

हमने भी एक बेवफ़ा से वफ़ा मांगी है।



डॉ मनीष कुमार मिश्रा

सहायक प्राध्यापक

हिंदी विभाग

के एम अग्रवाल महाविद्यालय

कल्याण पश्चिम

महाराष्ट्र ।

Friday, 26 May 2023

Efforts of Sex Education during 20th century in India


 

National Conference on DHARA: Bharatiya Paramparik Krishi Mela

 



















Namaste,

Warm Greetings from IKS Division of MoE
National Conference on DHARA: Bharatiya Paramparik Krishi Mela will be held at Tezpur University from 4th to 6th June 2023.  Theme-based event of the series called ‘DHARA: An Ode to Indian Knowledge Systems’ which is organized by the Indian Knowledge Systems (IKS) Division of the Ministry of Educationin collaboration with the Ministry of Culture, Government of India. 
The link for Registration is given below: 
Participants registration link https://forms.gle/G7fjP8BnHsX9YmUJA 
Also attached is the brochure of the event with the schedule.
Looking forward to a good response.

--
Thank you & regards,
Team IKS
Indian Knowledge Systems, AICTE,
Nelson Mandela Marg, Vasant Kunj, New Delhi.
Tel No: 011 29581523

शारीरकविमर्श विषयक राष्ट्रीय संगोष्ठी

 आदरणीय महोदय/महोदया,

श्रीशंकर शिक्षायतन वैदिक शोध संस्थान, नई दिल्ली दिनांक 30 मई 2023 को सायंकाल 5:00-7:30 बजे तक शारीरकविमर्श विषयक राष्ट्रीय संगोष्ठी का समायोजन करने जा रहा है। इस कार्यक्रम में आप सादर आमन्त्रित हैं। गूगल मीट के माध्यम से समायोजित होने वाली इस राष्ट्रीय संगोष्ठी में सम्मिलित होने का लिंक नीचे दिया गया है। कृपया संलग्न आमन्त्रण पत्र स्वीकार करते हुए अधोलिखित लिंक के माध्यम से पंजीकरण कर अपनी सहभागिता सुनिश्चित कीजिए। हम आशा करते हैं कि आप निर्धारित तिथि को इस संगोष्ठी में अपनी गरिमामयी उपस्थिति से हमें अनुगृहीत अवश्य करेंगे।  

पंजीकरण लिंक : https://forms.gle/u95wv79PmckiY95e6

गूगल मीट लिंक : https://meet.google.com/jvb-ebmh-hbn

 


--

Regards,

Shri Shankar Shikshayatan

(Institute of Vedic Research)

D 6/25, Vasant Vihar

New Delhi- 110057

Contact: 011-68228078


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