Roman Mythologies

 Roman Mythologies

Dr. Swati Joshi

Gujarat 

It can be said that Roman People adopted Christianity under the influence of the myth of Hellenes the ancient Greek. Romans knew very well that Greeks are their defeater even though Romans were ready to adopt good virtue from their religion and they incorporated Greek mythology into their mythologies.  Roman continued with these mythologies even when they dominated Europe, Northen Africa, and Minor Asia. It can be said that Roman mythologies having merged mythologies of Greek, Italy, Roman and Etruscan civilization. Roman characters of the Myth are-

1 Cupid- It is believed that he was the God of Love, came from the Greek God Eros, son of Goddess Venus. He described as a boy having quiver of arrows. He had the power to create love and hatred. 

2 The Furies- The Fruries means three daughters of Terra Meter created by Uranus. They are Megaera, Tisiphone and Alecto. The duties of these three were to give punishment to the assassins.   They came from Greek myth as Erniyes. 

3 Hercules- The name came from the Greek hero Heracles. 

4 Janus- He was an Italian God and the word January came from his name Janus. He had two faces; one was on front and second was on back. 

5 Juno-   She was the Roman Goddess of Sky, and wife of Jupiter. Juno gave birth to Mars. She was categorized to the Greek Goddess Hera. 

6 Jupiter- He was a Roman God of Sky, storm, thunder and lighting. He can be categorized with the Greek God Zeuz. 

7 Justitia- He was the Roman Goddess of Justice. She described as having blindfold on her eyes and having sword and scales. She can be recognized with the Greek Goddess Dike. 

8 Mars- He was the father of Romulus and Remus, the creator of Rome. 

9 Mercury – He was working as the Roman messenger of God, similar to Greek God Hermes. In Celtic mythology Lugus and in Germanic mythology Odin was classified as mercury. 

10 Neptune- He was the Roman God of Water and fertility identified as the Greek God Poseidon. 

11 Ops- She was the Roman Goddess of harvest, wife of Satun and mother of Jupiter. She resembles with the Greek Goddess Rhea. 

12 Pax- She was the Roman Goddess of Peace.

13 Penates- Gods who protected storages of Homes. 

14 Quirinus- He was the God of war and considered as the head God of Romans. 

15 Romulus and Remus- They were twins, sons of Rhea Silvia and Mars. They fought with each other and Romulus killed Remus and after that ruled on Rome. 

16 Saturn- He was an Italian God of corn harvest and categories with Greek God Cronos. 

17 Sol- He was the God of Sun, originally from Mesopotamian Mythology. 

18 Tellus- She was the Goddess of Earth and productivity. 

19 Venus- She was the Goddess of agricultural, recognized with Greek Goddess Aphrodite. 

20 Vulcan- He was the God of Fire and Volcanoes in ancient Rome resembles with the Greek God Hephaistos. 

Dr. Swati Joshi

Gujarat 

Mythologies of the world

 Mythologies of the world

Dr. Swati Joshi

Gujarat 

 There are lots of mythologies of the different culture in the world. Every mythology discusses about their customs, society and traditions and also talked about their glorious and un forgettable past years. There are Biblical stories considered as mythology, Celtic mythology, Egyptian Mythology, Greek Mythology, Roman Mythology, Japanese Mythology, Mayan Mythology, Mesopotamian Mythology, Norse Mythology, Zoroastrianism Mythology, Arabian, Armenian, Aztec, Christian, Chinese, Guarani, Hindu, Islamic, Jewish, Korean, Polynesian, Romanian, Slavic, Turkic, and Micronesian Mythologies.

1 Biblical Stories-

 It is considered that Biblical Stories are from Bible. Bible is related with the religion of Judaism and Christianity. It has two parts. First is Tanakh (The Old Testament) which is related with Christian and second is The New Testament, which is related to Jesus. The Old Testament is having 24 books which are divided into 3 books. It is original written in Hebrew Language.

1 The Torah – It means to give instruction or act. It is again divided into five books as Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy.

2 The Nevi’m – It deals with history of Jewish and divided into eight book as Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel and Twelve.

3 The Ketuvim – It talked about King David, King Solomon and the Prophet Jeremiah. It is divided into eleven books as Psalms, Proverbs, Job, Songs of Songs, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, Esther, Daniel, Ezra, and Chronicles.

 The New Testament is another next element of Christian Bible having 27 books, written originally in Greek. It has six pasts as Gospel, The Acts, The Epistles, Revelation and Apocrypha.

 Gospel has four narratives that talk about birth, life, and death of Jesus Christ. The Acts talked about the foundation of Christianity, talk about what is death and how it is related with new born, and renaissance of Jesus. The Revelation talked about Messiah, the end of Satan and the beginning of the peace in that era. The Apocrypha which means hidden writing describes the life of Jesus.

2 Celtic Mythology-

 As Greek and Roman Mythology the Celtic Mythology is not renowned in the world. There are lots of Celtic Gods and Goddesses. Even at the rise of the Roman Empire Celtic people maintained their religion and culture which converted into mythology. But after some time Celtic people merged with Roman and Germans. Celtic Mythology is having Goulish Mythology, Scottish Mythology and Irish Mythology. Gaulish Mythology again came together with Roman because of its nearby culture and traditions and of influence. It can be said that it is a part of French Mythology. Scottish mythology became the part of Celtic Mythologies because the myth and legend can be directly seen as only one of its kind or explicit to Scotland. Irish mythology deals with Mythological cycle, the Ulster cycle, the Fenian cycle and historical cycle.

3 Egyptian Mythology-

 Egyptian Mythology is completely based on animals because they worship animals as God and Goddesses. The Egyptians are of opinion that the sanctified god and goddesses turn into human appearances. Ancient Egyptians believed that the Earth is in the form of disc and the centre part is Egypt. For them underworld is under the water which symbolizes bad things. They have different opinion about the creation of the universe, one myth is about Ptah who created the universe and another is Khhum who did the same by using potter’s wheel. In Egyptian Mythology there are lots of characters who symbolize different myths. The characters of the Mythology are-

1 Amon- Amon is considered as the main God of Thebes. Nut was his wife and Khensu was his son. He is seen as the Sun in this mythology.

2 Atum- He is considered as the first who come directly himself. He had produced Shu and Tefnut.

3 Duat- Egyptian myths are divided into three categories the Earth, Sky, and Duat. It is believed that the sun wonders whole day and at night he fell down in Duat and then no one can see the sun.

4 Geb - It is believed that Geb is related with earth and called God of Earth. He is considered as the chief of the goose.

5 Hathor- She is believed to be the Goddess of love, productiveness, and the Carnivals. She is always seen in the form of cow.

6 Horus - It is believed that he is the God of sky, the son of Osiris and Isis. He killed his Uncle Set because his uncle killed his father.

7 Isis- She is the Goddess of nature, sister and wife of Osiris. When set killed his husband into 14 pieces she collected all the pieces and it is believed that she recreated his husband. She represented as cow.

8 Veith- She is considered as the Goddess of war and hunt.

9 Nut- She is Goddess of sky and the sister and wife of Geb. She was the mother of Osiris, Set, Isis and Nepthys.

10 Osiris- He was the God of underworld. He was the son of Geb and Nut. Osiris had brother set and sister Isis to whom he marry. He focused more on charity, services and cultivation. His brother set killed him and cut in 14 pieces and spread in Egypt. Osiris is also known as Serapis in Egypt Mythology.

11 Ptah- It is believed that Ptah has produced universe and considered the principal God of the Memphis people.

12 Ra- Ra is believed as the God of Son. It is believed that he can be seen in form of hawk and lion. He was like king and performed his duties well but when he become old he had to send the Goddess Hathor to the Earth in the form of Eye. Then Thoth became his heir when Ra was doing his journey towards Duat. Geb and Osiris became the replacement of Ra.

13 Set – He was Evil God. He killed his brother Osiris and set was killed by Horus the son of Osiris.

14 Tefnut- It is believed that Atum created him.

15 Thoth- Thoth is considered as the God of Wisdom, magic and arts. It is believed that he was the creator of literature, geometry, and astronomy.

4 Japanese Mythology-

 It is believed that Japanese Mythology is based on Shinto religion but another belief is that Buddhism influenced this mythology and after some time they adopted Buddhism. The Japanese God and Goddess are-

1 Amaterasu- It is believed that she is the goddess of sun. It is considered that Jimmu the grandson of Amaterasu, went to earth before 3,000 years after this incident Jimmu is considered as the first sovereign of Japan. The three goddesses were produced by Amaterasu at the time of the struggle with her brother. In this struggle Amaterasu ran away and hid her in a cave. There was darkness in Japan because of her nonexistence. This incident resulted in the death of crops and suffering of people was at their highest point. God then decided to call Amaterasu on her position.

2 Izangi Izanami - Izangi means a male give invitation and Izanami means a female gives invitation. They are the 7th generation in Shinto’s religion and they got place to live in a form of island Onogoro. They both decided to marry and wanted to create new generation. For marriage they have done marriage rituals but in excited Izanami spoke which was bad omen. As per the rule a female should not speak a word during the rituals. The result was distorted infant in a shape of parasite. Izangi and Izanami both decided to find out the reason and went to heaven where they have done again the marriage rituals. From that ritual they have created eight big and small islands in Japan. After this event they both produced divine being of sea, wind, mountains, rivers, trees. After remarriage Izanami gave birth to the fire as God but because of fire Izanami burned herself while giving birth and then she died. Death created many God burns and the tears in the eyes of Izangi turns into anger, cut Kangutuchi into pieces. The pieces became God and blood converted into the stars of Milky Way. Izangi wanted his wife back and for that he went to the Yomi, the underworld where her wife refused to come back because she has eaten the black food of Yomi. Izangi tried to see her in the darkness with the torch light and frightened because at that time her body was decaying. He tried to run away but Izanami stopped him. Izangi created barricade between the living and dead world. Then Izanami asked for 1000 living in a day if he will go. Then Izangi replied that he will provide her 1,500 living every day. Because of that incident the death occurs on the Earth. Inzangi captures himself into the river and from his left eyes Goddess Amaterasu got birth, from his right eyes Tuskiyomi came out and Susono came from his nose. It is the myth that Izangi is still resting on the island of Honshu and even today he is worshiped by the people.

3 Yamata no Orochi- Orochi was in form of a serpent dragon with 8 heads, eight tails and it is believed that Orochi’s huge body can cover 8 valleys and 8 hills. At the time of the banish of Susano saw that one couple was crying because every year Orochi eat their daughters and today is their last daughter Kusinada who has to be ready for Orochi. Susano offered marriage proposal for Kusinada to save her. She became ready for the marriage and then Susano converted her into a comb and keep her in his hair. At last Susano killed Orochi.

4 Susano- Susano was the brother of Amaterasu and Trukiyomi and he is created and after some time banished by Izangi. Susano did not like earth and wanted to go to the underworld of Yomi. Izangi asked him to go but before that say farewell to your sisters. Then Susano went to the earth where his sister Amaterasu became insecure. She asked for competition. But after competition Susano become furious and Amaterasu tried to hide herself in the cave and then Sun also hide. So it is now compulsory to take back Amaterasu from the cave. Finally she came out and Susano went to the Yomi.

5 Tsukiyomi – She is created by Izangi and she is given the authority of night sky and moon. She shared the sky with her sister Amaterasu, the goddess of the Sun.

5 Mayan Mythologies-

 It is considered that Mayan Mythology is prior to the European world. Now a day’s Mayan Mythology is known for its creation of the calendar method. At the end of the classic period Mayan religion turn down with the reasons as overpopulation, mutiny, battle, disease, and draught. After this incident many building recreated but some of them are more focused on Yucatan Peninsula united, one law for all. The contact between Maya and Spanish happened in 1511 but around 40 years Spanish took over the Maya region. After this defeat Christianity became main religion of Mayan community. It is believed that among all the cultures of the world only Mayan had developed written language. Mayan Mythology had the contact with Aztecs and Mesoamerican religions. The characters of Mayan Mythology are-

1 Horaca- Horaca was the God of Strom and it is believed that he was always the part of humanity when it was created. He did all the work of humanity with the help of Kukulkan and Tepeu. Horaca the word means one legged. It is believed that the word Hurriacane comes from the word Horacan.

2 Kukulkan- He is the God of Mayan Mythology. The name Kukulkan means “feathered Serpent.”

3 Popol Vuh- It is believed that it is the text of Mayan people. The text talked about the creation of myth, gave description about the stories of heroes as twins Hunahpu and Xbalanque. The end of the text talked about mythical past of the K’’iche’’ kingdom and it symbolizes relations with the divine. The Popol Vuh manuscript was evidence by catholic priest, Francisco Ximenez.

6 Mesopotamian Mythology-

 Babylonian, Assyrian, Akkadian and Sumerian considered as the part of Mesopotamian Mythology. In this type of Mythology every community has their own religion and belief but they are connected to each other in one mythology. This mythology is having influence of the Hittites and the Phoenicians. It is believed that the area between Tigris and Euphrates of southwestern Asia was the area of Mesopotamian Mythology. Today, we can call it Iraq. But in 1258 Mongols demolished the Mesopotamian. After that other religion like Islam, Judaism and Christianity came out. Abgal, Apsu, Anu, Dagon, Ea, Enlil, Enuma, Elish, Gilgamesh, Ishtar, Marduk, Nablu, Nimah, Ningizzida, Scorpion men, The, Shamash, Sin, Tiamat, and Zu are the characters of this mythology.

7 Norse Mythology-

 Germanic, Nordic or Scadinavian are the other words to define Norse Mythology. It is believed that for many years Scandinavian people stored the myths of this community in verbal form, after long time Norse mythology came in the written form. Ragnarok means pre fate death which is related with this mythology. Norse mythology talked about the main God Esir and Vanir and about lots of giant. The characters of Norse Mythology are,

1 Esir- Esir is related with war, energy and death where as Vanirs deals with expansion and productiveness.

2 Angrboda -a giantess and mistress of Loki. She has given birth to Fennir, Jourmungand and Hel.

3 Bestla- Bestla was also giantess, wife of Bor and mother of Odin, Villi, and Ve.

4 Bor was the son of Buri and a giant. But it is believed that his birth has lots of doubts and uncertainty.

5 Buri – She was in the form of cow Audhumla.

6 Einherjar was also the important part of Norse mythology. Einhejar means “Lone Fighters”.

7 Fennir- He was the son of Loki and frost giantess Angrboda. He was in the form of wolf and worked as the beast of Ragnarok, the disaster of the God. Fennir was very furious animal no one has dared to feed him, only Try can feed him.

8 Fjorgyn- She was considered as the Goddess of Earth and she has given birth to Thor.

9 Freyja- She was the daughter of Sea God Njord. She was considered as the goddess of Productivity, love and lust. She believed in the heroic death. It is believed that she has lost his husband.

10 Jormungand- He was known as Midgard Serpent. He was the son of Loki the fire God and giantess Angrboda.

11 Loki- He was the son of frost giant Farbauti and the Giantess Laufey. He was very mischievous and always interested in tricking others. It is believed that he has given birth to eight legged Sleiphir.

12 Njord- He was the considered as the God of Sea and father of Frey and Freyja.

13 Odin- He was considered as the main God Germanic Mythology. He was the son of Bor and Besta. He was very popular with the name of “Father of Slain”. Odin was killed by Woolf Fenir.

14 Ragnarok- Ragnarok was the place where Gods and the Frost Giants fought for the final epic battle. It marked the end of the war, end of old world and marked new world.

15 Thor- Another name for Thor is Thunder God; he was the son of Odin and Fjorgyn – the Goddess of the Earth. It is believed that he has got magical Hammer. Another chief myth about Thor is that on him name Thursday the name came as the fifth day of the calendar.

16 Try- He was the God of war and son of Odin and Frigg. It is believed that on his name Tuesday the name as the third day of the calendar.

17 Valhalla- This was the big hall of Einherjar created by Odin for the heroic death of warriors in the war. There were around 500 doors and they are very vast and great that 800 warriors could do march out together.

18 Vanir- She was the deities of lushness.

19 Ve- He was the son of Bor and Besta and brother of Odin and and vil.

20 Vigrid- It was the final battle field between God and Giants.

21 Villi- He was the son of Bor and Besta and brother of Odin and Ve.

22 Snorri Sturlson- He was the poet and historian whose works talked about Norse Mythology.

Dr. Swati Joshi

Gujarat 

Mythology

 Mythology

Dr. Swati Joshi

Gujarat 

 A collection of Myth is called Mythology. In mythology we have human and supernatural characters that provide or give message to the society that what to do and what not to do? Mythology teaches us some moral lessons which prevail in the society. Mythology deals with Poetic Justice that symbolizes if a person will do wrong or against the rules of the universe then the person will be punished. In poetic justice vice is punished and virtue is rewarded. Panchtantra, Aesop’s Fables are the example of mythology. Mythology deals with traditional stories in that Gods and Supernatural become its significant faction. These narratives should not be merged with legends and sagas because these legends and sagas are also deals with human action. Mythology works as an instrument that helps to see, hear and understand the religion, philosophy along with science. In creature progress mythology is the initial indication of literary sunup. It comes in the form of oral that symbolizes the mindful attempt to handle in the eccentric world among the entire unusual living thing with mysterious understanding. Mythology endows with set of laws for social life and associates the tie between literature and the social order. Mythology is very gigantic and measureless that every writer has to go in deep to find out the correct and exact use of mythology to give a message. It can be declared that mythology the Sanatan Dharam (Hindu Dharma) and verbal stories have given men -the perception of tranquility and worldwide brotherhood otherwise men would have been eating of human flesh by another human being. Mythology in modern times seems not only with cultural touch but also with modern science and reject philosophy giving it standing point of not the true stories. Mythology is important to the unity of society. It is unconscious factors that works in society and teach them how to live. Mythology works as the answer to all questions unanswerable and without logic. Mythology works as the mirror of past time and explain things in exact manner.

Mythology is defined by various reasons in multiple ways.

For Alan Dundes

“Mythology, the sacred lore of tribes is as we shall see a powerful means of assisting primitive man, of allowing him to make the two ends of his cultural patrimony meet.”22

A Glossary of Literary terms writes that

“Mythology – a system of hereditary stories of ancient group and which served to explain (in terms of the intensions and actions of deities and other supernatural beings) why the world is at it is and things happen as they do to provide a rational for social customs and observances and to establish the sanctions for the rules by which people conduct their lives.”23

Yet another Dictionary and Literary Terms notes that

“Mythology is a system of mythical stories which taken together, elaborate the religious or metaphysical beliefs of a society. Such a system is likely to contain rituals……… a mythology is a religion which is no longer felt to be true.”24

For Anuradha Sharma

“Mythology consists of traditional stories in which gods or supernatural powers play their parts. These stories must not be confused with legends or sagas that are about human actions. Most of the myths have an element of religion.”25

For Bruce W. Masse

“Mythology is a function of the oral transmission of linguistically encoded data.”26

 For Gerhard Adler

“The myth can be regarded as the spontaneous and unreflective formulation of a primal psychological experience of a civilization, and it is for that reason that mythology can teach us so much about the early psychological experience of mankind.”27

Barker cites Barthes that myth makes particular world views appear to be unchangeable because natural or God given. Myth has the task of giving historical intention a natural justification, and making contingency appear eternal”.28

“Imagination plays a part in the development of myth which is best realized by the aesthetic effect created by a body of tales or by a set of pictorial symbols.”29

For Mali Joseph

“Mythology was primarily a literary amusement, or, at best, a repository of icons and emblems which, if properly interpreted, could be used for moral didactic purposes.” 30

For Joseph Campbell

“Mythology teaches you what’s behind literature and the arts, it teaches you about your own life. It’s great, exciting life, nourishing subject. Mythology has a great deal to do with the stages of life, the initiation ceremonies as you move from childhood to adult responsibilities, from the unmarried state into the married state. They have to do with your recognition of the new role that you are in the process of throwing off the old one and coming out in the new and entering into a responsible profession.”31

 Mythology epitomizes authenticity with the assist of images and symbols. People from varied cultures made conscious observations on natural phenomenon. Mythologies are shape by people who imagine with instinctive accepted wisdom and emotions. It can be said that every society deals with its own mythology – an organization of blessed stories about Gods and supernatural elements and even talked about the conception of what happens after death. From the long ages people have been listening and notifying these stories to help themselves, their live, society and world.

Dr. Swati Joshi

Gujarat 

Myths and Psychology

 Myths and Psychology

Dr. Swati Joshi

Gujarat 

In the 19th century the studies of myth and religions seen together, then the Psychological outlook on Myth is obvious.  There are multiple theories which can be seen on common human conditions and on Myth. Myths were progressively more seen as appearances of necessity in the human psyche.  Myth can also be seen from or on psychological view point. The intention of myth is also related with its psychologically utility. 

It can be said that-

“Human beings always have inquired and ever will inquire into the meaning of their existence.”15 

The most prominent influence in the field of psychological healing of myth is Sigmund Freud and Carl Gustav Jung. They gave their opinions on myth and psychology. They see man and myth in the deeper way in context to psychology rather than simple emotions, feelings, and unconscious motivation. Their thoughts can be called psycho analytical myth.

Sigmund Freud took the help of Greek myths – the story of Oedipus Rex to discuss the theories on psycho- sexual development. According to Freud humans have hidden (secret) strong desires that are taboos and even society is not giving permissions to express it. In the case of Oedipus Rex the discussion is not about the complex situation between destiny and human will. The discussion is related to why Oedipus has done taken his mother as his wife. Sigmund tried to see the situation from two points of view. 

1 The manifest Level 

2 Latent Levels 

On the manifest intensity it can be said that Oedipus is the innocent because whatever he has done it was because of fate. But on the latent levels Oedipus can be seen as offender. But the Latent Level is just a mask and here victimizer becomes a myth architect. It can be said that here myth is not biography but autobiography. Now the question is where can be seen the Oedipus complex? This complex can be seen in all adult males, especially those who grow too large for the desires that first come in childhood.  But the complex can be seen on higher range of neurotic adult males who are having difficulties at their oedipal stage (a stage where a child’s mind having sexual craving with the parent of the contradictory sex) where they tried to suppress their feelings.  It can be said that there are many reasons that not allowed children to fulfill their desires as parents are not alive, if parents are living then there are not dear relations between parents and child. These circumstances need myth that gives the perfect type of completion. The external level conceal the true meaning as literal meaning symbolizes that  Oedipus killed his father and had sex with his mother  that was unintentional. On the other level if Oedipus is rather than the myth- maker then the action is deliberate.   

“Myth thus constitutes a compromise between the side of oneself that wants the desires satisfied outright and the side that does not even want to know they exist. Myth functions through its meaning: myth vents Oedipal desires by presenting a story in which, symbolically, they are enacted……..”16 

It can be said that myths those are similar to dreams are like science for Sigmund and Jung. Myths and Dreams are different from each other. Myths are general where as dreams are on personal basis. Freud considered myths have boundary till neurotics and dreams are universally accepted.  

Otto Rank talked about myth and psychology in his book, ‘The Myth of the Birth of the Hero’ and tried to relate myth with hero. He talked about the first half of life of a man as – birth, childhood, adolescence, and young adulthood and the struggle of this   particular period to ascertain them as self-governing individual personality in the outer world. According to Rank’s pattern (Box2) He applies this theory on around 30 mythic heroes and as a result he found that the mythic heroes fall at the first half of their life. In the first half of their life they express their feeling about the security of job, a companion, searching security as separation from parents and mastery on themselves. Rank tried to observe the entire mythic hero from their childhood to their achievement of career. Rank considered the case of mythic hero Oedipus’s killing of his father is intentional but the reason behind the killing of his father is not revenge but his sexual dissatisfaction. Ranks’ Box 2 hero myth pattern would clear the above statements. 

“The standard saga itself may be formulated according to the following outline: The hero is the child of most distinguished parents, usually the son of a king. His origin is preceded by difficulties, such as continence, or prolonged barrenness, or secret intercourse of the parents due to external prohibition or obstacles. During or before the pregnancy, there is a prophecy, in the form of a dream or oracle, cautioning against his birth, and usually threatening danger to the father (or his representative). As a rule, he is surrendered to the water, in a box. He is then saved by animals, or by lowly people (shepherds), and is suckled by a female animal or by a humble woman. After he has grown up, he finds his distinguished parents, in a highly versatile fashion. He takes his revenge on his father, on the one hand, and is acknowledged, on the other. Finally he achieves rank and honors.”17 

Jacob Arlow an American Psychoanalysts has another opinion about myth and psychology. He considered that myth is related to usual progress moderately than the upholding of obsession. Myth helps in growing rather than just to be a child only. Myth supports in the amendment with the society and physical world and myth is not just a fight of child with himself.  Arlow considered that Classical myths are like dreams and dreams are our internal or hidden wishes. But myth not only works on dreams but also works to reject or to redirect (to express a desire or feeling by changing it into a form that is socially acceptable.) 

“Psychoanalysis has a greater contribution to make the study of mythology than (merely) demonstrating in myths, wishes often encountered in the unconscious thinking of patients. The myth is a particular kind of communal experience. It is a special form of shared fantasy, and it serves to bring the individual into relationship with members of his cultural group on the basis of certain common needs. Accordingly, the myth can be studied from the point of view of its function in psychic integration- how it plays a role in warding off feelings of guilt and anxiety, how it constitute a form of adaptation to reality and to group in which the individual lives and how it influences the crystallizations of the individual identity and the formation of the superego.”18 

As discussed Sigmund Freud and Rank has restricted to the first half of the life of the mythic heroes. C.G. Jung took the next step and talked about the second half of the life of the mythic heroes and tried to see on the psychoanalytical basis. Freud and Rank talked about the relations of the heroes with their parents where as Jung talked about the relation of the mythic heroes with the unconscious thinking. Jung analyzed not only heroic myth but also all kinds of myth and talked about the creation myth which works from the creation of consciousness that exposed from unconsciousness.  Freud considered that god symbolizes parents where as Jung considered that parent symbolizes god. Jung talked about father and mother as in form of archetypes. The relationship with his parents – one type of male personality (ego) and on other hand it is his unconsciousness. The father and the mother are the symbol of archetypes and Jung called it as “collective Unconsciousness.” 

‘Archetypes are unconscious not because they have been repressed but because they have never become conscious.”19

The term Archetypal criticism works as the part of literary criticism on the basis of model of mythical descriptions and archetypal elements.  J.C.Frazer studied about the fundamental prototype of myth and rituals and C.G.Jung who used the term “archetypes” which means “Primitive Images”. Jung was at the opinions that in “Psychic excess”- the recurring human experience that has taken from the primordial intimates continue to exist in the collective consciousness and represented in the form of myths, religions, dreams and in personal fantasies. 

Along with Jung there are many psychoanalysts who have given their precious opinion about myth and psychology, as Bruno Bettelheim, Alan Dundes, Joseph Campbell and Adonis.

Myth is not always in form of oral but a myth can be seen with the support of photography, cinema, reporting, sports, show, and publicity. Myth works on reference.  For example if one talk about this means this stands with some particular significance that is why it is this and myth. As we know that Myth is a speech and legendary vocalizations (speech) is based on material which is already employed or can be said appropriate for announcement. It can be said because the materials of myth works on assume suggesting consciousness. Language plays essential role in myth.  Pictures and written documents become helper of myth to give detail and confirmed information. But it does not indicate that we should indulgence mythical dialogue similar to language. In fact, myth belongs to the territory of universal science, with same range of limits with linguistics which resembles the study of sign. Myth cannot be seen without semiotics.  Myth works on structure and forms both which cannot be separated. Semiology (the study of signs and symbols of all kinds what they mean, how they relate to the things or ideas they refer to) is a kind of science – a science of form which deals with values and life. It can be said that Mythology is a component of both semiology and formal science and mythology is of an ideology and works as historical science.  Idea – in –form can be seen in it.  It is believed that semiology works with two terms – a signifier and a signified that symbolizes equivalence.  But semiology requires third term which is ‘sign’. 

Signifier (things that offer meaning)

Sign                =  (anything that communicate meaning) 

Signified (what is bring to mind- a mental concept)

Saussure worked on methologically ideal classification – a language and discussed that a signified is the perception and signifier is the aural image (related to mental imagination) and sign is the result of relation between image and perception. Investigative approach works in each term of Mythical organization.  Signifier looked in Myth from two different point of view as the concluding period of the linguistic system, or as the initial term of the mythological structure. 

Sign

Observation   principle

Notion                    Object

Familiarity

             Met-a-language (a language or system of symbols used to describe or analyze another language or system of symbols) is the breed of Myth.  It gives a turning point to language to define about itself.  In fact Met-a- language compose a category of   protection of myth. Men do not have any relationship with myth which is based on truth – they make something un political according to their needs.  Myths are generally established (received) from one to another but not read carefully. A message that is acknowledged but not read does not call for understanding through a cryptogram. They required only definite cultural knowledge to proceed. The quality of myth is to renovate significance into structure. It can be said that myth is always a burglar of language. Myth robbed most of the uttered (expressed) language but having little confrontation. This confrontation resulted in the perspicuity of language.  Languages in myths sometimes want to say something different from the meaning but signified is there to interpret what exactly the message is? Language is the only thing which let somebody borrow itself to myth in different various ways.  For example – if someone says that “the drop in value has started.” Then what is the drop? And to whom it is related?  The drop may be because of season that arises fall or because of administration. Here the signification becomes a freeloader of the commentary despite of concluding being specific. 

“Semiology has taught us that myth has the task of giving an historical intention a natural justification and making contingency appear eternal.”20

Barthes semiotics theory discusses on signs and Photographs and how they correspond to diverse culture and ideologies in different manner.    

1 Denotation- the accurate significance of the sign and 

2 Connotation- the suggested implication of the sign; the cultural conventions related with the sign. 

Readers of myth may be in dilemma sometime when they are dealing with myth, legend and folklore. They consider that all three are one and myth only. But every saying and every description through language is not Myth.  Here we would try seeing the difference among all these three terms.

Myth can be seen or judged or decided on the basis of Belief (it is based on fact) Time (based on inaccessible history) Place (Different world: other or earlier) attitude (holy) and Non human can be the chief characters. 

Legends can be seen or judged or decided on the basis of Belief (it is based on fact) Time (based on recent past) Place (Today’s’ world) attitude (holy and worldly) and human can be the chief characters. 

Folktale can be seen or judged or decided on the basis of Belief (it is based on fiction) Time (anytime) Place (any place of world) attitude (secular) and human and non human can be the chief characters. But folktales are entirely inventive. 

In Indian society myth works as a text- sequence of events and these myths are considered honest that might happened in the past. Myth are accepted as fact and comes to us as it is believable and often used as the rights to give answers of question (which may not be scientifically or logically analyzed), perform as an answer of uncertainties or mistrust.  Myths are linked with theology and ideology. Myth can serve as an immense assist in prolonging and progressing life when they are utilized prudently. Myth teaches us that what should be acceptable or what should be avoidable. Society plays major role in myth which can nurture universal appeal if used with caring think. Careless use of myth and mythologies can demolish the developing social sculpture and divide into varied sections. Myth works as blood in the vein of society that gives life to it. Even in the future science world myth will be there in the face of society, people and universal truth. Myth will be in co- ordination with science and modernity with its spiritual, cultural and social world. It can be said that myths are evidence to the saintly ability of human life with scientific approaches. Myth can be considered as nothing but the experience of life. Readings on myths will give experience and will teach the significance of symbols in contemporary modern context. Sometime myth is a kind of ambiguity and then ritual became the part of myth which makes them more complicated to understand. In each and every culture rituals along with myth come with everlasting arguments. 

“Myth helps you to put your mind in touch with this experience of being alive.”21

Myth cannot be judged from the one religion or folktale. Myth has a wide range of explanation, symbols, and messages and will show the combination of facts and findings. Every Culture takes myth seriously and instructs us to let it be the part of your life. 

Dr. Swati Joshi 

Myth, Religion and Rituals

 Myth, Religion and Rituals

Dr. Swati Joshi 

This is very notion that Myth is related to religion but science and philosophy have given challenge to religion on the authenticity of myth. Myth when seen in relation with religion then they are in the category of traditional myth as biblical and classical myth but as the time continues these myths are read on the basis of symbol and not taken mythically or legendary. Sometime myth is not lock up to clearly religious ancient stories. The term “Demythologized’ came in the world of myth which is about human experience; an expression of what it ‘feels’ in the world that kills a religious purpose of myth and give a scientific approach to myth. When science interprets myth then it became symbolic only and out of touch of religion. The work religious or religion in myth is related to rituals. There are rituals that symbolize religious touch to any myth. William Robertson Smith a Scottish Biblicist (expert on the bible) in his lecture on ‘the Religion of the Semites’ (a member of any of various ancient and modern people originating in southwestern Asia including Hebrews) disputed that the central object of modern religion is belief but this is not applicable for the ancient religion because the central object of ancient religion are rituals. Smith discussed that ancients executed rituals because they have their own reason which are irrelevant and can change. The reason behind fluctuation was story or myth. The stories and myths are to explain the condition according to the chronological order that means the first come first theory and established the events as command by God. In this matter Myth come on second position and rituals are compulsory and myth become elective. Myth and rituals are interrelated but these two have shifting positions. But both are having identical significance.  Smith stated that for him myth cannot be seen without rituals. According to E.B.Tylor -Myth is nothing but clarification of the substantial world and myth is not related with social like rituals. But one term is common between Smith and Tylor that myth is completely ancient.  In modern religion is not including myth and rituals. It can be said that myth and religion are not only ancient but also primitive. 

Dr. Swati Joshi 

Myths and Philosophy

 Myths and Philosophy

Dr. Swati Joshi 

Myth can be seen through religion, science and even with philosophy. The book ‘Primitive Man as Philosopher’ written by Paul Radin will give glimpse about the relation of Myth and Philosophy. According to Radin myth is full of primitive assumptions, having place in the world. Radin considered that myth compact with all kind of metaphysical area which stands against the world of reality. Ernst Cassirer the German Philosopher discussed about myth that myth works in the structure of knowledge and that knowledge may be language, art or science. The French existentialist Albert Camus discussed about the decreasing factor of myth to philosophy in Greek myth of Sisyphus. The genuine function of Myth is not to show the objective representation of world 

Dr. Swati Joshi 

Myth and Science- Dr. Swati Joshi

 Myth and Science-  Dr. Swati Joshi 

In 19th century the theories on myth focuses chiefly on the origin of myth but in the 20th century theories were focused on the composition (subject matter) and (function) utility of myths. But this concept has given birth to mystification between past origin and repeated origin. This concept has given birth to where and when the myth first occurs and how myth takes place? Sometime general questions are asked that myth can be called universal? Or myth is true or not?  Theories are incomplete without myth and myth is not complete without theory. With this statement we can see myth and science. The main challenges to myth have come not from ethical point of view but from science view points. But it should be very clear that science means “modern science” which is not related to mythic or religious science. Myth and science come together with assurance that myth is believable because it is scientific. But this concept works against the term “demythologizing” - a disconnection of myth from science.  To prove this statement we have example of the first plague in that the water of Nile turns into blood (Exodus- 7:14-24) but the editor of the New Oxford Annotated Bible has seen this incident from the scientific point of view and declare that – The epidemic of blood was a usual occurrence of Egypt and the red blood color of the water of Nile was at its pinnacle in the season of summer because of the red element of earth or may be because of microscopic life form. This was the scientific approach to myth of Egypt. On the second plague that is related with Frog (Exodus 8:1-15)  the editor has given different scientific reason that the frog was produced in the mud of the Nile  because of the recurring teeming and that was the natural atmosphere for Frog to produced. We have these two incidents of myth where people are saying that because of the curse of God these incidents happened there.  The above incident discussed that one should not considered myth against science but one has to see myth into science. It does not mean that science is noted into myth. Other aspects can be seen from scientific view point which is discussed already. After the discussion next question arises that can myth be as Primitive Science? Myth is a part of religion and religion itself is a science. Myth sometime becomes the casualty of the procedure of secularization that comprises modernity. But E. B. Tylor presented his view that Myth and Science are at chances and he considered myth under religion and religion and science works under philosophy. He separated philosophy into two category ‘primitive’ and ‘modern’.  Primitive philosophy is a religion but science is not primitive. Comparatively Modern Philosophy has two division religion and science. Modern religion has two divisions – metaphysics and ethics but none represents primitive religion.   J.C. Frazer Scottish anthropologist was of the opinion that myth is based on   religion and religion is the complement to natural science. The primitive opinion of Frazer and Tylor is rational. F.M Conford is of the opinion that Myth and religion has given birth to Greek science but he gave importance to content only. 

“Science tries to document the factual character of the natural world, and to develop theories that coordinate and explain these facts. Religion, on the other hand, operates in the equally important, but utterly different, realm of human purpose, meanings, and values.”12 

The French Philosopher and anthropologist Lucien Le’vy- Bruhl is of another opinion on Myth. Lucien considered Myth on a broad way and separated myth and science and discussed that primitive thinking has no rationale attitude. Lucien strongly uttered that Primitive thinking is not related to philosophy and primitives had their own ideas, and concept that turn into myth. Bronislaw Malinowski is against the concept of Lucien. Malinowski discussed that Science is used by primitives to manage the substantial world in that science converted into magic. This magic discontinues and then primitives spin to myth.  Clause Levi- Strauss – the French structural anthropologist talked deeply about primitive, science and myth. According to Strauss,

“Myth is outright scientific because it goes beyond the recording of observed contradictions to the tempering of them. Those contradictions are to be found not in the plot or myth but in structure.”13 

Karl Popper who was philosopher of science has his own views on myth which is against Tylor. 

Popper considered that

“Science emerges out of myth’: most of our scientific theories originate in myth. He discussed that ‘Science originates not out of the acceptance of myth but out of the criticism of it. By criticism …… not rejection but assessment which becomes scientific when it takes the form of subjection to attempt to falsify the truth claims made.”14 

Dr Swati Joshi

Gujarat